A/HRC/26/39 caveats as to the categories of women who do not benefit from each of these measures, have some marginal impact in reducing the pension gap. Of these gender-specific measures, the only one that almost closes the gender pension gap is mandatory joint annuities. This suggests that the way to rectify women’s relative poverty in old age is through mandating joint annuities with their husbands. However, this does not solve the problem for single or divorced women. Furthermore, it leaves the problem of engineering a system that is equitable for traditional dependent marriages and yet can still incentivize economically independent women. V. Violence against women17 102. Gender-based violence against women, including state violation of women’s bodily integrity and autonomy, violence in the public arena, violence in workplaces and educational institutions, and domestic violence and economic violence by intimate partners, can severely impact and restrict women’s economic and social potential throughout their life cycle, including their access to education, freedom of movement and employment. In economic and social institutions, women are exposed to sexual harassment, including unwelcome sexual behaviour, remarks, and pornographic images and demands, whether by words or actions. Such conduct is threatening and humiliating. 103. Many countries prohibit sexual harassment in the workplace, whether it is quid pro quo (extorting sexual cooperation by threat of job-related consequences) or creating a hostile environment, and impose accountability on the employer. Out of 100 countries surveyed, 78 have laws addressing sexual harassment in the workplace, and of these, 52 criminalize such conduct. The legal prohibition of sexual harassment has been based, variously, on the concepts of discrimination against women and of violation of women’s human dignity, and good practice is to apply a “double approach” involving both concepts. 104. In addition, women are exposed to sexual harassment in the public arena, including service institutions, public transport, “street harassment,” cyberbullying and pornographic advertising, producing a fear factor that severely curtails their freedom of movement and occupation. However, only 8 out of 100 States have enacted laws prohibiting sexual harassment in public places. Good practice includes prohibition of sexual harassment in the provision of services. It entails municipal responsibility for policing, lighting and introducing surveillance cameras in public spaces. 105. School-related gender-based violence takes different forms, with girls in some countries violently targeted for attending school, while in other countries, they are subject in school to sexual violence or harassment, including by teachers. Such violence results in trauma, stigmatization and sometimes pregnancy, and severely curtails girls’ educational opportunities. In many States, sexual intercourse with a minor is considered rape, as minors are not capable of consent, but only 32 out of 100 States have specific provisions on sexual harassment at schools. Examples of good practices by some States include introducing confidential school reporting mechanisms, capacity-building for police, child-friendly courts, a public register of sexual offenders and barring sexual offenders from teaching. 17 20 This section draws upon the background paper by Frances Raday and Shai Oksenberg in collaboration with the Lowenstein Institute. See also R.K.B. v. Turkey (Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women Communication No. 28/2010).