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Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 51
- Paragraph text
- Attacks against journalists may be perpetrated by a range of actors - State or non-State - such as organized crime groups, terrorist groups, security forces or militia. Journalists are placed at risk of attack for documenting and disseminating information deemed to be "inconvenient," including on human rights violations, environmental issues, corruption, organized crime, drug trafficking, public crises, emergencies or public demonstrations.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Environment
- Violence
- Personnes concernées
- Activists
- Année
- 2012
Paragraphe
The right to access information 2013, para. 33
- Paragraph text
- The set of principles for the protection and promotion of human rights through action to combat impunity, as updated in 2005 by the independent expert appointed for that purpose (A/CN.4/2005/102/Add.1), also spells out the obligations of States to inform society of what has happened and recognizes the inalienable right of every people to know the truth (principle 2), emphasizing also the preservation and facilitation of access to archives (principles 14 and 15).
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2013
Paragraphe
The right of the child to freedom of expression 2014, para. 17
- Paragraph text
- The right to seek information set out in article 13, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Rights of the Child has often been associated with the right to access to information, in particular information held by public authorities. This right is also closely related to the provisions of article 17 of the Convention, which aims to ensure that children have access to information and material from a diversity of national and international sources.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personnes concernées
- Children
- Année
- 2014
Paragraphe
Hate speech and incitement to hatred 2012, para. 32
- Paragraph text
- Many of the efforts that Governments are currently making to combat hate speech are, however, misguided. These include requests by Governments to intermediaries to screen and remove user content, registration requirements to identify users' real names and arbitrary blocking of websites. In addition, vaguely worded and ambiguous laws with disproportionate sanctions are frequently used to silence criticism and legitimate political expression, as highlighted in section II.C. While laws prohibiting incitement to hatred in accordance with international human rights law are necessary and required to tackle the phenomenon of hate speech, the human sentiment of hatred cannot be eliminated by legal prohibition alone, and the deterrent effect of such laws is not absolute, given that radical perpetrators often seek prosecution as a means to obtain access to the mainstream media to promote their ideas. Moreover, when an attempt to prosecute fails, for example where some forms of hate speech do not meet the threshold of incitement to violence, hostility or discrimination (such as bullying and offensive speech that do not incite any acts), there is a risk that that failure would be used as proof of endorsement of the speech, even though such speech merits condemnation. Furthermore, with regard to hate speech on the Internet, both the sheer volume of content posted every day and the cross-boundary nature of the medium considerably complicate effective implementation of the law.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Personnes concernées
- All
- Année
- 2012
Paragraphe
The right to access information 2013, para. 13
- Paragraph text
- In 2011, in establishing a specific mandate to monitor the promotion of truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence, the Human Rights Council emphasized the importance of a comprehensive approach incorporating the full range of judicial and non-judicial measures in order to, among other things, ensure accountability, serve justice, provide remedies to victims, and promote healing and reconciliation (Human Rights Council resolution 18/7).
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personnes concernées
- All
- Année
- 2013
Paragraphe
The implications of States’ surveillance of communications on the exercise of the human rights to privacy and to freedom of opinion and expression 2013, para. 11
- Paragraph text
- Innovations in technology have facilitated increased possibilities for communication and freedom of expression, enabling anonymity, rapid information sharing, and cross-cultural dialogues. At the same time, changes in technologies have also provided new opportunities for State surveillance and intervention into individuals' private lives.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Equality & Inclusion
- Personnes concernées
- All
- Année
- 2013
Paragraphe
The right of the child to freedom of expression 2014, para. 42
- Paragraph text
- Restrictions on the content of school curricula may also affect children's access to diverse sources of information. In this regard, the banning of books and teaching materials containing ideas that run counter to those supported by the school administration is another concern. In the 1982 case Board of Education v. Pico, for example, a court in the United States ruled that books could not be removed from school libraries for ideological reasons.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Education
- Personnes concernées
- Children
- Année
- 2014
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 53
- Paragraph text
- Another threat to the freedom of journalists and to press freedom is the increasing use of criminal law on defamation, slander or libel by public officials to silence criticism regarding their personal activities or public policies. The mere use of such "judicial harassment" generates a climate of fear and a "chilling effect" which encourages self-censorship. This issue is further explored under section D below on criminalization of expression.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2012
Paragraphe
The right to access information 2013, para. 56
- Paragraph text
- The protection of national security explicitly appears in international human rights law as an acceptable reason to limit a number of freedoms, including freedom of expression. On the other hand, as detailed above, restrictions to the exercise of basic freedoms, including all possible restrictions to the right to access information, must still be clearly and objectively established by law and must also conform to the strict tests of necessity and proportionality.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personnes concernées
- All
- Année
- 2013
Paragraphe
The right of the child to freedom of expression 2014, para. 21
- Paragraph text
- Lastly, children have the right to impart information to others. As is the case for the right to receive information, there are few references to this right in the jurisprudence of the Committee on the Rights of the Child. The Committee has stated, for example, that children have the right to contribute to children's magazines, television and other media, to engage in political activities both within and outside the school and to set up Internet chat rooms.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Education
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Personnes concernées
- Children
- Année
- 2014
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 50
- Paragraph text
- During times of conflict, journalists are at a heightened risk of being subjected to arbitrary detention and internment for alleged security reasons. In an international armed conflict, war correspondents, or representatives of the media who are accredited to, and accompany, the armed forces without being members thereof, are entitled to the status and treatment of a prisoner-of-war in case of capture. This is by virtue of the fact that they are formally authorized to accompany the armed forces and aim to keep the closest possible contact with the armed forces and thus inevitably share the fate of the armed forces. Hence, war correspondents benefit from all the protections of the Third Geneva Convention as supplemented by Additional Protocol I and customary international law. All other journalists who fall into the hands of a party to an international armed conflict benefit at least from the protections granted in article 75 of Additional Protocol I, which includes, inter alia, prohibition of violence to life, health or physical or mental well-being, humiliating and degrading treatment, and taking of hostages. They are also entitled to fair trial guarantees in the case of detention for penal offences. In addition, journalists in the hands of a party to the conflict or occupying power of which they are not nationals benefit from the protections granted by the Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Fourth Geneva Convention).
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Humanitarian
- Année
- 2010
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 76
- Paragraph text
- Although the above examples of challenges and good practices relating to the protection of journalists in situations of widespread violence or impunity have been drawn from Latin America, this is not the only region in which these issues are a concern. The Special Rapporteur has sent communications to several countries regarding issues such as impunity, journalists reporting on violence and organized crime, as outlined in chapters II and III above.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Violence
- Année
- 2012
Paragraphe
The right to access information 2013, para. 76c
- Paragraph text
- [The core principles include:] Promotion of open government. The full implementation of national laws on access to information requires that the public be informed about their rights and that government officials adhere to a culture of openness. Dedicated efforts are required to disseminate information to the general public on the right to access information and to raise the awareness of and train government staff to respond appropriately to public demands;
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personnes concernées
- All
- N.A.
- Année
- 2013
Paragraphe
The right of the child to freedom of expression 2014, para. 26
- Paragraph text
- The right of all children to be heard and taken seriously constitutes one of the fundamental values of the Convention. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has identified article 12 as one of the four general principles of the Convention, which highlights the fact that this article establishes not only a right in itself, but should also be considered in the interpretation and implementation of all other rights (see CRC/C/GC/12, para. 2).
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personnes concernées
- Children
- Année
- 2014
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 50
- Paragraph text
- A notable trend in 2011 was the increase in the number of attacks against journalists during coverage of street protests and demonstrations, such as arbitrary arrests and detention, verbal and physical attacks, confiscation or destruction of equipment, as well as killings in countries such as Angola, Belarus, Egypt, Georgia, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Libya, Malawi, Maldives, Russian Federation, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia and Yemen.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Humanitarian
- Violence
- Personnes concernées
- Activists
- Année
- 2012
Paragraphe
The right to access information 2013, para. 28
- Paragraph text
- The Special Rapporteur recalls that, as stated by the Human Rights Committee in its general comment No. 34 (2011), to give effect to the right to freedom of expression, States parties should proactively put in the public domain government information of public interest, and that, in ensuring access to such information, States parties should also enact the necessary procedures, such as by means of freedom of information legislation (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 19).
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personnes concernées
- All
- N.A.
- Année
- 2013
Paragraphe
The implications of States’ surveillance of communications on the exercise of the human rights to privacy and to freedom of opinion and expression 2013, para. 77
- Paragraph text
- States must ensure that the private sector is able to carry out its functions independently in a manner that promotes individuals' human rights. At the same time, corporate actors cannot be allowed to participate in activities that infringe upon human rights, and States have a responsibility to hold companies accountable in this regard.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Economic Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personnes concernées
- N.A.
- Année
- 2013
Paragraphe
The right of the child to freedom of expression 2014, para. 49
- Paragraph text
- The result of vague and broad definitions of harmful information, for example in determining how to set Internet filters, can prevent children from gaining access to information that can support them to make informed choices, including honest, objective and age-appropriate information about issues such as sex education and drug use. This may exacerbate rather than diminish children's vulnerability to risks (see more in section VII below, on the Internet).
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Equality & Inclusion
- Health
- Personnes concernées
- Children
- Année
- 2014
Paragraphe
The right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral contexts 2014, para. 38
- Paragraph text
- Restrictions on political expression take a variety of forms - from defamation and slander laws, to blanket bans on critical expression relating to incumbent politicians, to the prohibition of whole media sources, outlets and websites - and impact not only the individuals or groups which might run afoul of them, but the media outlets or intermediaries that publish restricted, or what is considered to be illegal, political expression.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Année
- 2014
Paragraphe
The right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral contexts 2014, para. 58
- Paragraph text
- Where media are State-owned, national legal frameworks should ensure that all political parties have access to them and are treated fairly and equitably. When paid political advertising is allowed, private media outlets should be required to charge all parties and candidates the same rates without discrimination. The incumbent government or candidates should not be given preferential or disproportionately large media coverage.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Equality & Inclusion
- Personnes concernées
- All
- Année
- 2014
Paragraphe
Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age 2016, para. 14
- Paragraph text
- The Guiding Principles provide a useful starting point for identifying private information and communications responsibilities, but several other projects have also proposed principles for the sector. The Global Network Initiative's Principles on Freedom of Expression and Privacy draw on the experience and expertise of the investor, civil society and academic communities. The European Commission published the ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. Relevant civil society initiatives include the Manila Principles of Intermediary Liability, which establish baseline protection for intermediaries in accordance with freedom of expression standards; the African Declaration on Internet Rights and Freedoms, which promotes human rights standards and principles of openness in Internet policy formulation and implementation on the continent; and the Ranking Digital Rights Corporate Accountability Index, which evaluates a set of major private actors in the digital space on the basis of their adherence to freedom of expression and privacy norms. Civil society also acts to check and balance other actors engaged in Internet governance: the Code of Good Practice on Information, Participation and Transparency in Internet Governance, for example, seeks to ensure that relevant processes are meaningfully communicated to the public, accountable to all stakeholders, and emphasize democratic participation.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personnes concernées
- N.A.
- Année
- 2016
Paragraphe
Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age 2016, para. 61
- Paragraph text
- It is important to note that surveillance is affected by other demands on privately held information. For example, the inability of the mutual legal assistance treaty regime to keep pace with cross-border data demands may drive States to resort to invasive extraterritorial surveillance measures. Laws that require companies to retain customer data or store such data in local data centres may also encourage such surveillance.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Environment
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personnes concernées
- N.A.
- Année
- 2016
Paragraphe
Contemporary challenges to freedom of expression 2016, para. 47
- Paragraph text
- In recent years, a number of Governments have adopted laws that explicitly attack expression on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. For instance, the Government of Kyrgyzstan adopted a law that criminalizes the dissemination of information relating to "non-traditional" sexual relationships. Uganda has criminalized the "promotion" of homosexuality, while the Russian Federation has banned the "propaganda of homosexuality" at the federal level across the country. In Zambia, a human rights advocate not only faced undue delays when trying to register an NGO for the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex persons and sex workers, but also was charged with "soliciting for immoral purposes" when he urged greater access to health care for sex workers and sexual minorities. In some cases, individuals and organizations involved in lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender-related activism or expression even face significant threats of physical violence. In Honduras, for example, there has been a systematic lack of accountability for advocates of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender rights who have been murdered, kidnapped or assaulted. In an important step, the Human Rights Council, reflecting on the increasing pressure on and violence and discrimination against individuals on the basis of their sexual orientation, established a mandate for an independent expert to combat such discrimination and violence (see Council resolution 32/2).
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Equality & Inclusion
- Gender
- Violence
- Personnes concernées
- LGBTQI+
- Année
- 2016
Paragraphe
The protection of sources and whistle-blowers 2015, para. 15
- Paragraph text
- International human rights law has developed well-established principles protecting source confidentiality. At the international level, such rules derive from the guarantee of the right to seek, receive and impart information enshrined in article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The European Court of Human Rights celebrates the "vital public watchdog role of the press" as underlying source protection and has established a high level of protection for journalists who are reporting on matters of public interest. In May 2015, the East African Court of Justice ruled that journalists could not be compelled to reveal sources merely because the information they provided related to national security or defence. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has emphasized that "every social communicator has the right to keep his/her source of information, notes, personal and professional archives confidential". The African Commission on Human and People's Rights has stated that "media practitioners shall not be required to reveal confidential sources of information or to disclose other material held for journalistic purposes", except where meeting certain specified exceptions. The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe recommends that States provide "explicit and clear protection of the right of journalists not to disclose information identifying a source". International criminal tribunals also protect sources.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personnes concernées
- All
- Année
- 2015
Paragraphe
The use of encryption and anonymity to exercise the rights to freedom of opinion and expression in the digital age 2015, para. 14
- Paragraph text
- The human rights legal framework for encryption and anonymity requires, first, evaluating the scope of the rights at issue and their application to encryption and anonymity; and, second, assessing whether, and if so to what extent, restrictions may lawfully be placed on the use of technologies that promote and protect the rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personnes concernées
- N.A.
- Année
- 2015
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 24
- Paragraph text
- Journalists play an essential watchdog role in ensuring transparency and accountability in the conduct of public affairs and other matters of general interest by keeping the public informed. However, it is their monitoring role and their ability to influence public opinion which frequently result in their becoming targets of various human rights violations, including abduction, arbitrary detention, assault, enforced disappearance, expulsion, extrajudicial killing, harassment, kidnapping, threats and acts of violence and of discrimination, imprisonment, persecution, and torture, as well as surveillance, search and seizure. Such acts constitute, first and foremost, a violation of journalists' right to freedom of expression and press freedom, as they are aimed at preventing journalists from reporting and expressing their opinions on sensitive issues. Attacks against journalists also constitute a violation of the right of the public to receive information.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personnes concernées
- Activists
- Année
- 2010
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 33
- Paragraph text
- The right of all individuals to freedom of opinion and expression is stipulated in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 19(2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which states that "everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice". The Special Rapporteur notes that 166 States, or the majority of the States Members of the United Nations, have ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, while 72 States are signatories.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personnes concernées
- All
- Année
- 2010
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 42
- Paragraph text
- The Special Rapporteur would like to underscore the key role that journalists play in situations of armed conflict, as they shed light on events unfolding on the battlefield, including potential abuses and violations of international human rights and humanitarian law committed by parties to a conflict. In the Randal case, the Appeals Chamber of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia noted that journalists working in war zones served "a public interest" because they "play a vital role in bringing to the attention of the international community the horrors and reality of conflict". In addition, in his report to the Security Council on the protection of civilians in armed conflict, the Secretary-General highlighted the important role of the media and information in the context of humanitarian operations, noting that the awareness of distant events allows informed assessment and helps humanitarian agencies to shape an appropriate response before going into a conflict area.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Humanitarian
- Personnes concernées
- Activists
- Année
- 2010
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 43
- Paragraph text
- The Special Rapporteur recognizes that war reporting is inherently dangerous, as journalists are exposed to dangers arising from military operations and, instead of fleeing the combat zone, often seek proximity. In his most recent reports on the protection of civilians in armed conflict, the Secretary-General also expressed concern regarding the increasing number of journalists and media assistants killed or injured while reporting from areas of conflict, highlighting the fact that fatalities have resulted from excessive risk-taking, crossfire, or deliberate targeting by parties to a conflict. In addition, owing to their work, journalists are often suspected of being spies during armed conflicts and are either "eliminated" or used deliberately as "bargaining chips" by warring parties.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Humanitarian
- Personnes concernées
- Activists
- Année
- 2010
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 48
- Paragraph text
- International humanitarian law protects journalists and other media professionals in times of armed conflict. In an international armed conflict, a journalist is entitled to all rights and protection granted to civilians, as stipulated in article 79 of the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I). The same protection also applies to non-international armed conflicts during which journalists are considered to be civilians by virtue of customary international law. Hence, although there are only two explicit references to media personnel under international humanitarian law (article 79 of Additional Protocol I, regarding journalists engaged in dangerous professional missions in areas of armed conflict, and article 4A(4) of the Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (Third Geneva Convention), regarding, inter alia, war correspondents), all provisions related to the protection of civilians in the four Geneva Conventions and the Additional Protocols thereto are applicable to journalists.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Mode d'adoption
- N.A.
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Humanitarian
- Année
- 2010
Paragraphe