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The role of digital access providers 2017, para. 35
- Paragraph text
- IXPs handle an enormous volume of Internet traffic that may be filtered or intercepted at government request. The growing number of censorship and surveillance incidents involving IXPs indicates that they are major access choke points, even if their precise role is unclear. For example, in 2013, the manner in which access to YouTube was blocked in Pakistan indicated that the platform was filtered by IXPs, rather than ISPs, through a method known as “packet injection”. According to a leaked internal memo of a multinational ISP operating in Ecuador, users were unable to access Google and YouTube in March 2014 because the private Association of Internet Providers of Ecuador — which runs two of the major IXPs in the country — was “blocking access to certain Internet websites by request of the national Government”. The revelations of mass surveillance conducted by the United States National Security Agency have raised concern among technologists that the agency is intercepting a significant proportion of domestic and foreign Internet traffic by targeting United States IXPs. In September 2016, the world’s largest Internet exchange point, which is based in Germany, challenged legal orders issued by the country’s intelligence agency to monitor international communications transiting through its hub.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2017
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
The use of encryption and anonymity to exercise the rights to freedom of opinion and expression in the digital age 2015, para. 60
- Paragraph text
- States should not restrict encryption and anonymity, which facilitate and often enable the rights to freedom of opinion and expression. Blanket prohibitions fail to be necessary and proportionate. States should avoid all measures that weaken the security that individuals may enjoy online, such as backdoors, weak encryption standards and key escrows. In addition, States should refrain from making the identification of users a condition for access to digital communications and online services and requiring SIM card registration for mobile users. Corporate actors should likewise consider their own policies that restrict encryption and anonymity (including through the use of pseudonyms). Court-ordered decryption, subject to domestic and international law, may only be permissible when it results from transparent and publicly accessible laws applied solely on a targeted, case-by-case basis to individuals (i.e., not to a mass of people) and subject to judicial warrant and the protection of due process rights of individuals.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2015
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Hate speech and incitement to hatred 2012, para. 74
- Paragraph text
- Lastly, ensuring accountability for what is reported in the media also remains important. For example, the open journalism paradigm promoted by the Guardian newspaper in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland encourages two-way interaction between journalists and the audience online, which has reinserted journalists' willingness to engage in debate and be accountable for what they do into the core of journalism. At the very minimum, media outlets and journalists should adopt voluntary ethical codes and standards that do not allow hate speech and promote high standards of professional journalism, in addition to establishing independent and self-regulatory bodies to elevate standards of journalism and to ensure the accountability of all media professionals. Self-regulatory bodies should be seen not only as an exercise in policing and dispute resolution, but also as an opportunity to involve society at large in debates about the role and contribution of the media, to monitor the state of the media, to advocate professional journalism and to promote media literacy. Such bodies can also play a proactive and exemplary role in setting and reinforcing ethical standards for online content and the social media.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2012
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 53
- Paragraph text
- Hence, as civilians, all journalists, whether accredited to or embedded with the forces involved, attached to adversary forces or operating unilaterally, are provided with comprehensive protection under international humanitarian law during armed conflict, provided they do not directly participate in hostilities. The Special Rapporteur would like to discourage the granting of special protection or special status to journalists under international law, as this would necessitate the formulation of a precise definition of journalists as a protected category and the clearer identification of journalists in armed conflict, both of which could potentially lead to significantly decreased protection for journalists. The former might require journalists to be duly accredited and recognized by some public authority, thus increasing interference by the State, and the latter might place journalists in further danger, since many are targeted precisely because they are journalists, as explained above. Thus, the Special Rapporteur firmly believes that existing standards are sufficient, but that respect for and the implementation of such standards must be strengthened.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Humanitarian
- Année
- 2010
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
The role of digital access providers 2017, para. 42
- Paragraph text
- Some evidence suggests that vendors may provide support for government censorship and surveillance. In a case pending before United States courts, Cisco has been accused of designing, implementing and helping to maintain a Chinese surveillance and internal security network known as the Golden Shield. (Cisco denies those allegations.) In Ethiopia, human rights groups found that ZTE Corporation had designed and installed a customer management database for Ethio Telecom that enabled intrusive surveillance.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2017
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
The use of encryption and anonymity to exercise the rights to freedom of opinion and expression in the digital age 2015, para. 36
- Paragraph text
- The trend lines regarding security and privacy online are deeply worrying. States often fail to provide public justification to support restrictions. Encrypted and anonymous communications may frustrate law enforcement and counter-terrorism officials, and they complicate surveillance, but State authorities have not generally identified situations - even in general terms, given the potential need for confidentiality - where a restriction has been necessary to achieve a legitimate goal. States downplay the value of traditional non-digital tools in law enforcement and counter-terrorism efforts, including transnational cooperation. As a consequence, the public lacks an opportunity to measure whether restrictions on their online security would be justified by any real gains in national security and crime prevention. Efforts to restrict encryption and anonymity also tend to be quick reactions to terrorism, even when the attackers themselves are not alleged to have used encryption or anonymity to plan or carry out an attack. Moreover, even where the restriction is arguably in pursuit of a legitimate interest, many laws and policies regularly do not meet the standards of necessity and proportionality and have broad, deleterious effects on the ability of all individuals to exercise freely their rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2015
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
The protection of sources and whistle-blowers 2015, para. 23
- Paragraph text
- Protection must also counter a variety of contemporary threats. A leading one is surveillance. The ubiquitous use of digital electronics, alongside government capacity to access the data and footprints that all such devices leave behind, has presented serious challenges to confidentiality and anonymity of sources and whistle-blowers. The problem of unintended self-disclosure has been a recurrent feature in the leading cases involving journalistic sources in recent years, in which the Government of the United States of America discovered probable source identities through telephone and e-mail records. Writers themselves report concern that their ability to protect sources is much diminished in the face of surveillance. National and regional courts in Europe have appropriately criticized extralegal approaches to compromising confidentiality. The Italian Supreme Court of Cassation, for example, protected the telephone records of a journalist because they were openly instrumental to the identification of those who had provided confidential information. The European Court of Human Rights emphasized the importance of providing "the individual adequate protection against arbitrary interference" caused by surveillance. The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe recommends that interception, surveillance and other digital searches "should not be applied if their purpose is to circumvent" source protection.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2015
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
The protection of sources and whistle-blowers 2015, para. 18
- Paragraph text
- Today, journalists and other "social communicators" may claim the right of confidentiality for the source. Persons other than journalists inform the public and carry out a "vital public watchdog role". International bodies increasingly use terms more general than "journalist", such as "media professionals" or "media workers". The African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights refers to "media practitioners" and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Representative on Freedom of the Media refers to "new participants in journalism". All those terms demonstrate an understanding that those performing the same journalistic functions should enjoy the right to protect sources. The Council of Europe has defined the term "journalist" functionally as "any natural or legal person who is regularly or professionally engaged in the collection and dissemination of information to the public via any means of mass communication". For the purposes of source protection - when, as the Norwegian Supreme Court has noted, the broadest protection should be available - any person or entity involved in collecting or gathering information with the intent to publish or otherwise disseminate it publicly should be permitted to claim the right to protect a source's confidentiality. Regular, professional engagement may indicate protection, but its absence should not be a presumptive bar to those who collect information for public dissemination.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2015
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
The implications of States’ surveillance of communications on the exercise of the human rights to privacy and to freedom of opinion and expression 2013, para. 70
- Paragraph text
- A further initiative preventing communications anonymity is the gradual adoption of policies that require the registration of SIM cards with a subscriber's real name or government-issued identity document. In 48 countries in Africa, laws requiring individuals to register their personal information with their network provider prior to activation of pre-paid SIM cards are reportedly facilitating the establishment of extensive databases of user information, eradicating the potential for anonymity of communications, enabling location-tracking, and simplifying communications surveillance. In the absence of data protection legislation, SIM users' information can be shared with Government departments and matched with other private and public databases, enabling the State to create comprehensive profiles of individual citizens. Individuals are also at risk of being excluded from use of mobile phone services (which may enable not only communication but also access to financial services) if they are unable or unwilling to provide identification to register.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2013
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
The implications of States’ surveillance of communications on the exercise of the human rights to privacy and to freedom of opinion and expression 2013, para. 69
- Paragraph text
- Individuals are now also required to use their real names online in many States, and to provide official identification in order to establish their identity. In the Republic of Korea, the Information Communications Law, adopted in 2007, required users to register their real names before accessing websites with more than 100,000 visitors per day, ostensibly in order to reduce online bullying and hate speech. The law was recently overturned by the Constitutional Court on the basis that it restricted freedom of speech and undermined democracy. China recently adopted the Decision to Strengthen the Protection of Online Information, requiring Internet and telecommunications providers to collect personal information about users when they sign up for Internet access, landline, or mobile phone service. Service providers allowing users to publish online are required to be able to link screen names and real identities. These real name registration requirements allow authorities to more easily identify online commentators or tie mobile use to specific individuals, eradicating anonymous expression.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2013
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 86
- Paragraph text
- Many journalists continue to inform the Special Rapporteur that the systematic use of unjustified criminal prosecution or even civil tort prosecution with disproportionate financial sanctions paralyzes journalistic investigation and generates an atmosphere of intimidation, which constitutes a form of judicial harassment.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2012
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 77
- Paragraph text
- Combating impunity and ensuring the protection of journalists requires strengthening respect for the rule of law and ensuring that the domestic legal framework and institutions promote the right to freedom of expression and support the establishment of free, independent and pluralistic media. The Special Rapporteur notes with concern the continuing existence and application of domestic legislation which criminalize expression.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2012
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 57
- Paragraph text
- As well as having an obligation to prevent human rights violations against journalists, such as killings, ill-treatment or unlawful arrest, States also have a responsibility to ensure that their national legal systems do not permit impunity in cases when such violations take place. The issue of impunity is further discussed below.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Année
- 2012
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 55
- Paragraph text
- In addition to articles 19 of the Declaration and of the Covenant, which protect the right of journalists to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of any kind through any medium of communication, journalists are also protected under other provisions in international human rights law, including the right to life, freedom from torture and arbitrary arrests and detention, and the right to an effective remedy.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2012
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 107
- Paragraph text
- Journalists should not be held accountable for receiving, storing and disseminating classified data which they have obtained in a way that is not illegal, including leaks and information received from unidentified sources.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2012
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Key trends and challenges to the right of all individuals to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds through the Internet 2011, para. 77
- Paragraph text
- Broadband Internet access through mobile phones is also increasing rapidly. According to ITU statistics, by the end of 2010, the total number of mobile broadband subscriptions worldwide had reached 940 million. This number is expected to top 1 billion in 2011, from 73 million in 2005. One key reason for the growth in mobile broadband is that operators are offering both competitive and affordable data packages. This development is complemented and supported by new technologies, which are bringing more efficiency to networks. Singapore is one such example with a 100 per cent penetration rate for mobile phones, and with a majority of households having at least one mode of broadband access. In addition, in 2008 and 2009, the Government selected two companies to work on a coordinated nationwide roll-out of the network. As stipulated under the terms of the broadband deployment, one of these companies will waive all installation charges for home and building owners when the network first reaches their area. These companies are also to provide network connectivity to outdoor locations.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Economic Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2011
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 91
- Paragraph text
- The Special Rapporteur encourages the Security Council to continue to give priority to the issue of the protection of journalists in armed conflict, including by integrating the issue into the mandate of peacekeeping operations and other missions, as appropriate, in accordance with Security Council resolution 1738 (2006) and the aide-memoire (see S/PRST/2009/1).
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Humanitarian
- Année
- 2010
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 37
- Paragraph text
- The obligation to protect is particularly important in relation to violence against journalists committed by non-State actors. Specifically, States have the obligation to take appropriate measures or to exercise due diligence to prevent any harm caused by private persons or entities, a failure of which can amount to a violation of article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Année
- 2010
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
The right to access information 2013, para. 33
- Paragraph text
- The set of principles for the protection and promotion of human rights through action to combat impunity, as updated in 2005 by the independent expert appointed for that purpose (A/CN.4/2005/102/Add.1), also spells out the obligations of States to inform society of what has happened and recognizes the inalienable right of every people to know the truth (principle 2), emphasizing also the preservation and facilitation of access to archives (principles 14 and 15).
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2013
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 53
- Paragraph text
- Another threat to the freedom of journalists and to press freedom is the increasing use of criminal law on defamation, slander or libel by public officials to silence criticism regarding their personal activities or public policies. The mere use of such "judicial harassment" generates a climate of fear and a "chilling effect" which encourages self-censorship. This issue is further explored under section D below on criminalization of expression.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2012
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 50
- Paragraph text
- During times of conflict, journalists are at a heightened risk of being subjected to arbitrary detention and internment for alleged security reasons. In an international armed conflict, war correspondents, or representatives of the media who are accredited to, and accompany, the armed forces without being members thereof, are entitled to the status and treatment of a prisoner-of-war in case of capture. This is by virtue of the fact that they are formally authorized to accompany the armed forces and aim to keep the closest possible contact with the armed forces and thus inevitably share the fate of the armed forces. Hence, war correspondents benefit from all the protections of the Third Geneva Convention as supplemented by Additional Protocol I and customary international law. All other journalists who fall into the hands of a party to an international armed conflict benefit at least from the protections granted in article 75 of Additional Protocol I, which includes, inter alia, prohibition of violence to life, health or physical or mental well-being, humiliating and degrading treatment, and taking of hostages. They are also entitled to fair trial guarantees in the case of detention for penal offences. In addition, journalists in the hands of a party to the conflict or occupying power of which they are not nationals benefit from the protections granted by the Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Fourth Geneva Convention).
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Humanitarian
- Année
- 2010
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
The protection of sources and whistle-blowers 2015, para. 68
- Paragraph text
- State entities should also support civil society organizations that are expert in the areas of access to information, protection of journalists and their sources, and whistle-blower promotion and protection. Many such organizations may offer technical advice and training. States should ensure that civil society can participate fully in all efforts to adopt or revise source and whistle-blower laws, regulations and policies.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2015
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 117
- Paragraph text
- The Special Rapporteur welcomes the support for freedom of expression and the protection of journalists in different regional mechanisms, as well as measures taken, such as the establishment of Special Rapporteurs. In cases where regional actors have not yet set standards for the protection of journalists, the Special Rapporteur encourages them to do so in consonance with those already existing at the international level.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2012
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 93
- Paragraph text
- For States emerging from conflict situations, United Nations entities should consider providing assistance to States to establish robust democratic institutions and effective judicial and administrative mechanisms which would enhance their ability to protect and guarantee the rights of all individuals, including journalists, and to create favourable conditions to promote and protect the right to freedom of expression.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Humanitarian
- Année
- 2010
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
The role of digital access providers 2017, para. 37
- Paragraph text
- The censorship resilience of content delivery networks has also made them targets of disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression. In Egypt, the blocking of The New Arab website in August 2016 also disrupted access to content on other sites that, although unaffiliated, shared the same content delivery network, which led researchers to believe authorities had targeted that particular network. In China, a national filter has reportedly blocked EdgeCast content delivery network, which handles content for a number of large websites in the country.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2017
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
The role of digital access providers 2017, para. 9
- Paragraph text
- Shutdowns ordered covertly or without an obvious legal basis violate the requirement of article 19 (3) of the Covenant that restrictions be “provided by law”. In Chad, the failure of authorities to provide a meaningful public explanation for a series of Internet and social media shutdowns between February and October 2016 created the presumption that they were unlawful. In Gabon, total network outages were allegedly recorded every evening for almost two weeks during the 2016 election period, contrary to government assurances that such services would not be disrupted.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2017
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
The role of digital access providers 2017, para. 13
- Paragraph text
- Observers have also noted the growing use of shutdowns to prevent cheating by students during national exams. Uzbekistan may have been the first to invoke this justification during university entrance exams in 2014. In 2016, authorities allegedly ordered shutdowns during exams in India, Algeria, Ethiopia and Iraq.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2017
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
The use of encryption and anonymity to exercise the rights to freedom of opinion and expression in the digital age 2015, para. 9
- Paragraph text
- Notably, encryption protects the content of communications but not identifying factors such as the Internet Protocol (IP) address, known as metadata. Third parties may gather significant information concerning an individual's identity through metadata analysis if the user does not employ anonymity tools. Anonymity is the condition of avoiding identification. A common human desire to protect one's identity from the crowd, anonymity may liberate a user to explore and impart ideas and opinions more than she would using her actual identity. Individuals online may adopt pseudonyms (or, for instance, fake e-mail or social media accounts) to hide their identities, image, voice, location and so forth, but the privacy afforded through such pseudonyms is superficial and easily disturbed by Governments or others with the necessary expertise; in the absence of combinations of encryption and anonymizing tools, the digital traces that users leave behind render their identities easily discoverable. Users seeking to ensure full anonymity or mask their identity (such as hiding the original IP address) against State or criminal intrusion may use tools such as virtual private networks (VPNs), proxy services, anonymizing networks and software, and peer-to-peer networks. One well-known anonymity tool, the Tor network, deploys more than 6,000 decentralized computer servers around the world to receive and relay data multiple times so as to hide identifying information about the end points, creating strong anonymity for its users.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Année
- 2015
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
The right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral contexts 2014, para. 83c
- Paragraph text
- [Accountability mechanisms are a crucial means of ensuring that regulatory frameworks are enforced and abuses of power are rectified. Impunity is a root cause of the lack of safety faced by journalists. In the context of promoting free expression during electoral processes, States should:] Call on journalists and the media to seek the highest standards of professionalism and ethics through the promotion of self-regulation.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2014
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe
Key trends and challenges to the right of all individuals to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds through the Internet 2011, para. 73
- Paragraph text
- Another example of national strategies is that of Brazil, where in early 2008 a "Broadband in Schools" programme was launched in Brazil through a partnership involving the federal Government, the regulator National Telecommunications Agency (ANATEL) and several telecommunications operators. The project aims to connect 56,865 state schools nationwide, which would then benefit 37.1 million pupils, or 84 per cent of the Brazilian student population.
- Organe
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Type de document
- Special Procedures' report
- Thèmes
- Education
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Année
- 2011
- Date ajouter
- 19 août 2019
Paragraphe