A/HRC/44/51 protection of the environment. Furthermore, neoliberal globalization has also weakened several State functions that are important for gender equality, such as the provision of quality care services, which are increasingly privatized or non-existent. 34. The specific impacts of globalization on women’s access to employment opportunities have been mixed. In some contexts, increasing numbers of women have gained access to export-oriented manufacturing employment. ILO estimates that the number of jobs in global supply chains in 40 countries increased from 295 million in 1995 to 453 million in 2013.23 More than one fifth of the global workforce have a job in a global supply chain. The share of women employed in global supply chains in emerging economies tends to be higher than their share in total employment. 24 35. Low prices paid to suppliers exert pressure down the supply chain to reduce costs, leading to downward pressure on wages. As a result, women’s employment in global supply chains is often insecure, with poor working conditions and with labour and human rights violations and human trafficking presenting a significant concern. Moreover, some Governments have sought to relax their labour and environmental regulations in an effort to attract investments from multinational corporations that engage in a “race to the bottom” – in search of countries where the requirements to ensure safe, fair and decent conditions of work are less stringent. Mass land acquisitions for global supply chains also result in the loss of work and income for rural women in the global South, and forced displacement in some contexts. Sexual harassment is rampant in many parts of the supply chains where the workers are predominantly female, such as the garment sector.25 36. Globalization is also creating new vulnerabilities for women’s work due to fissuring of the workplace through increased global supply chains, subcontracting and the use of flexible forms of labour. Research conducted by the International Trade Union Confederation found that the world’s 50 largest companies only employ 6 per cent of people in a direct employment relationship and rely on a hidden workforce of 94 per cent. 26 Increasing subcontracting and fissuring of the workplace creates significant challenges for collective organizing through trade unions and cooperatives, which is critical for securing better pay and working conditions for women workers. 37. New robotic and automation technologies are further transforming global supply chains and production processes, putting at risk many jobs typically held by women, such as sewing machine operators, hand sewers and assembly workers. Evidence shows that, as countries upgrade their industries through technological advances, women’s employment generally declines, a phenomenon referred to as “defeminization”. Moreover, technological advances have spurred further offshoring of production from the global North to the global South, particularly in services. Rather than increasing access to decent work in the global South, the reality is that these jobs are disaggregated into microtasks performed by contractors on platforms in low-income countries, who have no labour contracts or workplace protections and are often underpaid. As such, digitalization risks perpetuating old forms of discrimination, exploitation and informal work for women in the global South. Increased focus on sustainability and just transitions 38. The shift to sustainable economies and just transitions has also featured as a critical element of the changing world of work. The focus on the green economy and sustainable jobs holds potential opportunities for women’s employment. For example, it is estimated that the number of jobs in the renewable energy sector could increase from 10.3 million in 2017 to nearly 29 million in 2050.27 Available data indicates that women are more likely to work in the renewable energy sector, as compared with fossil fuels, signalling potential for 23 24 25 26 27 See www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/--inst/documents/publication/wcms_723274.pdf. Ibid. See www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/supporting_resources/ brochure_combatting_sexual_harassment_garment.pdf. See www.ituc-csi.org/frontlines-report-2016-scandal. See www.irena.org/publications/2019/Jan/Renewable-Energy-A-Gender-Perspective. 9