A/HRC/23/50 The freedom to create new communities of shared cultural values around any markers of identity they want to privilege, new cultural meanings and practices without fear of punitive actions, including any form of violence. This means that women must be able to embrace or reject particular cultural practices and identities as well as to revise and (re)negotiate existing traditions, values or practices, regardless of their provenance. Active engagement in the cultural sphere … helps to build central traits of democratic citizenship.18 36. In times of political transition when political life is highly volatile and polarized, women’s equal and full participation in political and public life depends on the effective protection of their fundamental freedoms and human rights, particularly those mentioned above. National human rights institutions (NHRIs) and other independent monitoring bodies play a particularly crucial role for women during these times. 2. Integration of women in public and political institutions 37. The participation of women in public and political institutions is crucial for their equality in citizenship and for empowering them to have an impact on and integrate a gender perspective into policy and decision-making. 38. Special measures, including quotas for women and other temporary measures, as required under article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention and general recommendations No. 23 (1997) and No. 25 (2004) of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, are necessary to achieve equality between men and women in political and public life, in order to contend with the underlying structural disadvantaging of women. The most significant increase in the numbers of women in national parliaments over the years has occurred in countries where special measures, such as gender quotas, have been effectively constructed and implemented. The use of quotas to advance women’s political representation and participation has increased in the past three decades and produced significant results when properly adapted to specific electoral and political systems. 39. Many of the quota systems were adopted as part of the rebuilding of political systems and institutions after years of conflict and/or authoritarianism.19 Quotas work best when accompanied by sanctions and closely monitored by gender-responsive independent bodies, including national electoral bodies and human rights institutions. Research has shown that, in general, women’s chances of winning seats in parliamentary elections increase in proportional representation systems.20 40. Quotas introduced at the local level are rare but important for equality outcomes on the ground. In one country in South Asia, for example, a constitutional amendment mandated the representation of women, reserving one third of the seats within each council and women taking one third of the leadership positions as head.21 Research has shown that after a decade of implementation, women are more likely to stand for, and win, elected 18 19 20 21 10 A/67/287, para. 28. According to the Global Programme for Electoral Cycle Support, a United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) initiative, one third of the countries that have achieved percentages of 33 per cent or higher in women’s representation in national parliaments are considered countries in transition (see DFID and IDRC, summary (footnote 9), p. 3). Leslie A. Schwindt-Bayer, “Making quotas work: the effect of gender quota laws on the election of women,” Legislative Studies Quarterly, vol. 34, No. 1 (February 2009), p. 15. Lori Beaman et al., “Women as agents of change: evidence from the grassroots”, presentation to the Working Group, 25 July 2012.