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Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 2
- Paragraph text
- In the late 1970s, a dramatic shift occurred in housing policies, starting with North America and Western Europe, followed later by some countries in Latin America, Asia, Africa and by formerly planned economies. The shift, calling for the transfer of activities from State control to the private sector and for unrestricted markets, soon gained hegemony, shaping the policies of States, international financial institutions and development agencies. The effects of the approach on housing policies, hence, on the right to adequate housing and related human rights across the globe have been striking. The new role of the State as "enabler" led to creating conditions and institutions to support housing finance systems to promote homeownership under the neoliberal dogma of reliance on private property and market forces.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Economic Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 3
- Paragraph text
- Developed and developing countries have been steadily moving away from traditional supply-side assistance to demand-side housing policies. As a result, the financial sector and the private housing market became the primary mechanisms for allocating housing, by encouraging households to take credit, while the role of public housing and supply-side incentives has been gradually declining. Development assistance greatly influenced the expansion of market-based housing finance and boosted housing market activity in developing countries.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 8
- Paragraph text
- In recent years market-based housing finance has rapidly spread throughout the world, mainly targeting the more affluent segments of society that have had the initial capital to take a mortgage, profiting lenders through the payment of interest. Traditionally, mortgage finance has been considered unattainable for the poor owing to issues such as lack of land titles, low and erratic income and employment in the informal sector.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Poverty
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 10
- Paragraph text
- The adverse effects of housing credit growth on affordability have also been visible at the macroeconomic scale. Wider access to mortgage loans resulted in higher and more volatile housing prices. Increasing dependence on mortgage credit, private institutions and connection to broader developments in the global capital markets has overexposed national housing systems to the turbulence of global finance, raising levels of debt and concentrating risks among individual households. Countries that adopted an open system of mortgages, based on subprime loans, easily granted credit and the securitization of mortgages, have seen a serious crisis since 2008.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 11
- Paragraph text
- The discrepancy between income levels and soaring housing and rental prices coupled with increasing unemployment have led to more payment default, foreclosures and homelessness. These processes are exacerbated by the adoption of legal and institutional adjustments aimed at facilitating foreclosures, which have been promoted in recent years as "imperatives for developing a housing finance system". The crisis has disproportionately affected the poorest and most vulnerable, who were the last to join the mortgage markets and the first to suffer the consequences of the crises owing to their low resilience to economic shocks and low repayment abilities.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Poverty
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 12
- Paragraph text
- A major component of the shift to demand-side housing policies has been the promotion of Government subsidies for privately produced residential units, mobilizing public resources and directing them to individual potential buyers with the idea of reducing Government intervention. The rationale behind the programmes is that low-income households will be able to finance their housing through the free market, with their own savings, assisted by a down-payment subsidy or a subsidized loan. Such types of subsidies include: (a) direct payments, either up front (to lower the amount of the loan, closing costs, down payment or insurance premium, or capital grant) or on a monthly basis; (b) subsidies tied to savings programmes; (c) interest-rate or interest-payment subsidies; (d) tax subsidies and exemptions tied to mortgage payments or real estate taxation. The last three types of subsidies are extremely costly, target mainly middle-income households and tend to have regressive effects (for example, in the United States the top 20 per cent of households earning over $ 100,000 per annum gain 75 per cent of the tax relief on mortgage payments). Such policies indirectly discriminate against low-income households, in particular when implemented as the main housing policy, since their cost to national budgets is often enormous, while they mostly benefit mostly the more affluent households (see A/67/286, paras. 34-37).
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 13
- Paragraph text
- The capital-grant-subsidy has been the most frequently promoted programme to target low-income households. The approach offers cash subsidies by private companies to cover part of the price of a dwelling for sale. The Chilean experience has been considered the model for other countries, widely replicated in Latin America (Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, Peru and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of). Outside of Latin America, the capital-grant approach has been implemented on a large scale in South Africa since 1994.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Economic Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 18
- Paragraph text
- Most housing microfinance initiatives originate in developing countries and emerging markets - Latin America, Asia and, to a lesser extent, in Africa. Although microfinance agency interest rates are typically lower than those of informal moneylenders, they are much higher (between 20 and 50 per cent) than those charged by formal financial institutions and have much shorter maturities. The poorer the client, the more likely the housing microfinance agency will attempt to manage default risk by reducing the size as well as the time over which the client must repay the loan and by increasing the interest rate. The use of floating rates of interest also leads to increases over the repayment period, sometimes up to double the original rate. It is therefore questionable whether housing microfinance fosters housing affordability for the urban poor or whether, in some cases, it leads to increased indebtedness.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Poverty
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 21
- Paragraph text
- By contrast, countries that have adapted a more balanced housing policy, by encouraging a variety of tenure forms, such as Austria, Germany, and Switzerland, have suffered little from the recent property crises. According to Housing Statistics in the European Union 2010 and Eurostat 2010, 40 per cent of the population in Austria rents and 56 per cent owns their dwellings; 54 per cent of the population in Germany and 56.1 per cent in Switzerland are tenants. Such examples demonstrate that the division between the various forms of tenure and housing policies is not a "natural" or necessary choice but rather influenced by State intervention and regulation of the housing sector through the use of its available resources as well as through legislation and policies, including fiscal, taxation and subsidy measures.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Economic Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 23
- Paragraph text
- As mentioned earlier in the report, the availability of public rental housing in many developed countries has diminished substantively or disappeared altogether. Most developing countries have never had a substantive stock of public housing, and those that have privatized it. A partial exception is the Republic of Korea where, in 2002, the Government announced a plan to build 1 million public housing units for rent over the next decade. Similar attempts have been made in recent years in Indonesia as part of a national programme for 1,000 Towers, some of which were intended for low-cost rental apartments (rusunawa), albeit with mixed results.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Economic Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 24
- Paragraph text
- In recent years, some Governments have looked towards non-profit organizations to provide housing for the poor and to limit Government involvement in the housing sector. Such institutions range from charities and housing associations to educational bodies. However, the social housing sector is substantive only in a handful of countries, mainly in Western Europe. As a result of cuts in funding to public housing and the ongoing global economic and financial crisis, waiting lists for social housing are increasing and the provision of affordable housing is not sufficient to keep up with the demand. In England, housing waiting lists augmented by 76 per cent between 2000 and 2011; in France 1.2 million applicants are registered on waiting lists for social housing, and in Italy there are 630,000.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Economic Rights
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 25
- Paragraph text
- Despite the decline in support for rental housing, the absolute number of tenants worldwide is rising. Across the world, approximately 1.2 billion people (around one third of the urban population and one sixth of all people in the world) live in rented accommodation, the great majority in towns and cities. In many European countries the private rental sector, including informal, is playing a growing role for the poor, owing to inadequate access to social housing and greater constraints in accessing ownership. In developing countries, the largest proportion of tenants is in urban Africa; in Asia, tenants comprise approximately one third of the urban population.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Economic Rights
- Poverty
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 28
- Paragraph text
- Significant increases in the supply of private rented housing are therefore necessary to help empower lower income tenants in the rental market and relieve affordability problems. In addition, demand-side policies are required to increase the affordability of the rental sector for the poor. Although most Governments have focused their efforts on increasing individual homeownership, there are some good examples of supply- and demand-based policies aimed at encouraging the small-scale private rental sector and increasing rent affordability for low-income households. Such interventions include taxation, direct or indirect subsidies, and regulation. State policies towards the informal rental sector also affect the accessibility of the poorest to rental arrangements.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Poverty
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 29
- Paragraph text
- The tax treatment of private rental investment is a critical factor in either stimulating (Australia, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and New Zealand) or discouraging it (United States and Canada). Taxation for other tenure investment options also has an influence on the rental sector: favouring tax deduction or exemptions for homeownership (including non-taxation of capital gains and mortgage interest deductibility) encourages it, undermining the attraction of rental investment.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 30
- Paragraph text
- Some European counties (such as the Netherlands and Sweden) employ a rental subsidy system to encourage rental developers or private owners through reduced interest programmes. The long-standing subsidization scheme in Germany for both the social housing sector and private investors laid the foundation for a large private rental housing market.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 31
- Paragraph text
- In Austria, a sustained combination of supply-side polices has resulted in a large housing stock with reasonable rents, allocated to middle-income groups with additional means-tested benefits for lower-income groups. By providing discounted building land, grants, public loans and tax favoured investment, the federal, regional and municipal governments have strategically promoted the development of limited profit, cost-capped, and cost-rent housing, catering to a range of households including low-income households.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 32
- Paragraph text
- Some countries have been implementing rent assistance programmes in order to address affordability problems (see A/HRC/13/20/Add.4, paras. 10 and 25). However, evidence indicates that such initiatives, in the absence of other policies regulating markets and assisting recipients of housing allowances, are not sufficient to provide adequate and affordable rental housing for low-income households. In countries in which rental supply is limited, subsidies schemes actually lead to an increase in rental prices and shortages of rental stock for low-income earners. Low income households receiving housing benefits often face difficulties in finding and keeping habitable accommodation in adequate locations with access to services, despite the extra purchasing power, owing to the low value of the benefits (given the rise in rental prices) and discrimination against vulnerable groups in the private rental market (see A/HRC/13/20/Add.4, paras. 17-26). In addition, means testing for housing benefits is often complicated, targeting is not always effective and allocation procedures encourage corruption. The tight conditioning of housing benefits on income levels has been criticized for failing to reach all beneficiaries (for example, only 40 per cent of private renters living in poverty in England are in receipt of housing benefit). Furthermore, the substantial cuts in housing benefits currently applied in various countries as part of recent austerity measures are likely to exacerbate the problem (see A/67/286, para. 32).
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Equality & Inclusion
- Poverty
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 34
- Paragraph text
- One of the main means of securing affordability and tenure for low-income tenants in private rental arrangements is rent legislation, regulation and control. Rent regulation varies greatly between regions, but typically includes two main elements: (a) security of tenure, establishing a minimum duration of occupancy as well as limitations on the eviction of tenants; and (b) control on levels of price increase, intended both to preserve affordability and to preclude de facto economic eviction. Rent control regimes tend to establish the amount and frequency of rent increases, linking it to fiscal measures such as inflation rates. In general, restrictions on rent increases are maintained only during sitting tenancy.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 36
- Paragraph text
- In some countries, however, notably, Austria, Germany and Switzerland, and over the course of many decades, in some cities like New York and San Francisco in the United States (see A/HRC/13/20/Add.4, para. 44), rent regulation has had favourable effects on stabilizing the rental sector and maintaining access by low- income households to urban housing that is well located. In Switzerland, rental investments have been maintained even though rent controls reduce the housing costs of long-standing tenancy, and legislation prevents arbitrary eviction and the exploitation of temporary shortages. In Quebec, Canada, a consistent and well-established regulatory system, with a reasonable balance between protecting tenants and encouraging investment, has been retained. In Uruguay, the Government has introduced a different tool to balance the interests of landlords and tenants, through a fund that provides guarantees to cover costs arising from the non-payment of rent and service payments (Fondo de Garantía de Alquileres).
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Economic Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 39
- Paragraph text
- Access to urban land for housing, especially serviced land, is one of the major problems faced by developing countries. Informal access to land, increasingly through rental arrangements, is becoming a key form of accessing affordable housing for the poor. A large share of urban landlords in developing countries therefore operate informally in unplanned settlements.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Economic Rights
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 48
- Paragraph text
- A housing cooperative is a legal association formed for the purpose of providing housing to its members on a continuing basis. It is owned, maintained and controlled by its members. Housing cooperatives are based on collective ownership and management and can take various forms, including tenure cooperatives (in which owns housing development are owned and the members own equity shares in the cooperative), rental cooperatives (in which members pay rent to the cooperative), finance cooperatives (in which the cooperative provides loans to members for building construction or repairs) and building cooperatives (wherein building construction is undertaken and land is developed on behalf of members). Some cooperatives combine two or more of those functions.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Economic Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 49
- Paragraph text
- The classic cooperative model has evolved mainly in Europe, and the "Scandinavian" cooperative model, founded in 1923, is one of the most influential. In Sweden, cooperative housing accounted for 22 per cent of all housing in 2011. Swedish cooperative organizations have received significant state support since the 1950s, when housing subsidies were applied equally to all forms of tenure, including cooperatives. The Swedish legislation provides a clear legal framework for the operation of housing cooperatives by defining the legal status of the relevant associations, such as the Savings and Construction Association of Tenants (HSB) and the cooperative housing organization known as Riksbyggen, and of the tenant owners. Additional rules and regulations are adopted by the associations themselves with tenant majority approval.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Economic Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 51
- Paragraph text
- A recent form of cooperatives combining finance and building are community funds, which have been developed in Africa and Asia. These funds work with group loans and/or savings in order to assist communities in financing land regularization and acquisition, infrastructure and service provision, and home improvements. The Asian Coalition for Community Action programme has promoted community funds in Asia from 2009 to 2011, carrying out 111 housing projects in 15 countries, at a total cost of almost $4 million; collective agreements were used in 36 of the projects.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Economic Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 56
- Paragraph text
- A community land trust is a form of common land ownership, wherein land is considered to be a commonwealth, and only structures and other improvements are considered private property. Community land trusts aim to remove land from the speculative real estate market; to provide access to land and housing to people who would otherwise be denied access; to expand long-term community control of land resources; and to preserve the affordability of housing permanently.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Economic Rights
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 57
- Paragraph text
- The large majority of community land trusts are organized essentially as "affordable housing trusts", and will oversee the development, sale or rental, and maintenance of housing units to buyers or renters who will lease the land from the community land trust. Through the use of an inheritable ground lease (typically for 99 years), community land trusts define the rights and responsibilities of the individual as the owner of the structures, and the community as the owners of the land. Usually, the community land trust is governed by a board of directors comprising one third leasers of the community land trust; one third residents from the surrounding community (that do not live on the leased properties of the community land trust) and one third individuals who represent the public interest.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Civil & Political Rights
- Economic Rights
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 58
- Paragraph text
- Community land trusts have been expanding over the past 50 years, primarily in the United States where, according to the national network, close to 250 were active as at June 2013. They also exist in the United Kingdom and Canada. An increasing number of municipal governments are forming community land trusts as a progressive strategy for addressing affordable housing needs that cannot be met solely with public housing programmes. Chicago, United States, is perhaps the largest example of a municipal government forming a public community land trust.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Economic Rights
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 60
- Paragraph text
- Although community land trusts do not provide loans or financial mechanisms, they assist potential members and advise them on their best choices in relation to their financial situations, including training seminars and pre-purchase stewardship. Recent evidence from the United States indicates that members of community land trusts have been less affected by the subprime mortgage crises and subsequent foreclosure proceedings.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 61
- Paragraph text
- However, research indicates that community land trusts have generally been able to address the needs of lower middle-income households (commonly with an income between 30-80 per cent below median income) but have not been able, except in rare occasions, to reach the poorest 15 per cent of the population. One of the main barriers to low-income households is the screening and selection process employed by most community land trusts, which include income documentation, credit records and job history and security.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 62
- Paragraph text
- Unlike housing cooperatives, community land trust systems have yet to be incorporated into national legislation. Each community land trust develops its own unique financing approach for both operating costs and project costs, and these approaches often include combinations of public and private sources, and grants and loans.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph
Analysis of two alternative housing policies: rental and collective housing 2013, para. 68a (i)
- Paragraph text
- [The Special Rapporteur calls for a paradigm shift from the financialization of housing to a human rights-based approach to housing policies. In that context, she makes the following recommendations:] States should promote various forms of tenure: A mixture of tenure solutions, including private and public rental and collective tenure, is essential for the promotion of access to adequate housing for the various segments of society and in order to shield individuals and households from economic and financial shocks. Legal and institutional frameworks should be created to ensure security of tenure for all forms of tenure;
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Economic Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Person(s) affected
- N.A.
- Year
- 2013
Paragraph