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The role of digital access providers 2017, para. 12
- Paragraph text
- The failure to explain or acknowledge shutdowns creates the perception that they are designed to suppress reporting, criticism or dissent. Reports of repression and State-sanctioned violence in the wake of network disruptions have led to allegations that some States exploit the darkness to commit and cover up abuses. In Sudan, for example, Internet access was shut down for several hours during a deadly crackdown on demonstrators protesting fuel price hikes in September 2013.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Humanitarian
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2017
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Contemporary challenges to freedom of expression 2016, para. 39
- Paragraph text
- Perhaps most concerning is that Governments often fail to provide measures of protection and accountability that can deter attacks on journalists. The Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights presented alarming statistics involving killings, kidnappings and other forms of aggression against journalists in the Americas, with extremely limited accountability despite some efforts to create special mechanisms for the protection of journalists. Messages from the most senior leadership matter, as I have pointed out in the wake of threatening comments made by the leaders of Thailand and the Philippines. The widespread failure to hold perpetrators accountable for attacks on journalists suggests the absence of concern for the role that journalists play in democratic societies. My communications have highlighted reports and allegations of the failure of accountability in, among other places, South Sudan, where journalists have been killed and disappeared; Mexico, where journalists have been murdered and accountability is inconsistent; the Philippines, which after nearly seven years has not concluded its investigations and prosecutions against those responsible for the massacre of journalists in Maguindinao; and the Russian Federation, where there are multiple reports of journalists who have been murdered and the perpetrators not held to account.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Humanitarian
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2016
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 58
- Paragraph text
- The Special Rapporteur would like to underscore that given that the causes of violence, as well as of impunity, vary in each context, strategies or protection mechanisms established to protect journalists must be tailored to local needs with context-specific consideration of the differing needs of journalists.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2012
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 52
- Paragraph text
- Female journalists also face additional risks, such as sexual assault, mob-related sexual violence aimed against journalists covering public events, or sexual abuse in detention or captivity. Many of these attacks are not reported as a result of powerful cultural and professional stigmas. A gender-sensitive approach is therefore needed when considering measures to address the issue of violence against journalists.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Equality & Inclusion
- Gender
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2012
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Groups in need of attention, limitations to the right to freedom of expression, and protection of journalists 2010, para. 133
- Paragraph text
- With regard to the alarming number of journalists who have been killed, kidnapped or threatened, States are reminded of their duty to investigate and prosecute those responsible for planning and perpetrating such acts in order to eliminate the culture of impunity that perpetuates violence.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2010
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 83
- Paragraph text
- The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that the problem with regard to continued and increasing violence against journalists, associated media personnel and citizen journalists is not lack of legal standards, but lack of implementation of existing norms and standards. The Special Rapporteur would thus like to make the following recommendations.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2010
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 29
- Paragraph text
- The Special Rapporteur notes that the 12 countries with the highest number of unresolved murders of journalists expressed as a proportion of the country's population are (in descending order): Iraq (88), Somalia (9), Philippines (55), Sri Lanka (10), Colombia (13), Afghanistan (7), Nepal (6), Russian Federation (18), Mexico (9), Pakistan (12), Bangladesh (7), and India (7).
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2010
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 26
- Paragraph text
- The suspected perpetrators of murders of journalists since 1992 are political groups (30 per cent), Government officials (24 per cent), criminal groups (13 per cent), paramilitary groups (7 per cent), military officials (5 per cent), local residents (2 per cent) and mob violence (2 per cent), while the rest are unknown (19 per cent).
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2010
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 51
- Paragraph text
- Attacks against journalists may be perpetrated by a range of actors - State or non-State - such as organized crime groups, terrorist groups, security forces or militia. Journalists are placed at risk of attack for documenting and disseminating information deemed to be "inconvenient," including on human rights violations, environmental issues, corruption, organized crime, drug trafficking, public crises, emergencies or public demonstrations.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Environment
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2012
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 50
- Paragraph text
- A notable trend in 2011 was the increase in the number of attacks against journalists during coverage of street protests and demonstrations, such as arbitrary arrests and detention, verbal and physical attacks, confiscation or destruction of equipment, as well as killings in countries such as Angola, Belarus, Egypt, Georgia, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Libya, Malawi, Maldives, Russian Federation, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia and Yemen.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Humanitarian
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2012
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 85
- Paragraph text
- Most important, the Special Rapporteur urges all States to end impunity for threats and attacks against and the murder of journalists, media professionals, associated personnel and citizen journalists. In particular, the Special Rapporteur calls upon the 12 countries with the highest rates of impunity (see para. 29 above) to investigate all violations thoroughly and to prosecute the perpetrators.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2010
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Contemporary challenges to freedom of expression 2016, para. 40
- Paragraph text
- In addition to physical violence and attacks, journalists also face a range of punitive measures that threaten their well-being and livelihood. For example, Kuwait and Bahrain have reportedly sought to strip journalists of their citizenship simply for doing their job. In Ecuador, the Government has filed copyright complaints in an attempt to take down content critical of its activities. In my report to the General Assembly in 2015 (A/70/361), I also identified the ways in which sources for journalists are under threat.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2016
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
The right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral contexts 2014, para. 35
- Paragraph text
- In the course of his mandate, the Special Rapporteur has addressed, through communications and public statements, reports of violence against or harassment of journalists in Belarus, where it was reported that, in the lead-up to the December 2010 presidential elections, journalists had their equipment seized and photographs deleted; and in the Islamic Republic of Iran, where, as at May 2013, 40 journalists had reportedly been imprisoned as a means of silencing free speech and debate ahead of the June 2013 elections.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2014
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 87
- Paragraph text
- States also have an obligation to implement measures to prevent the recurrence of violence against journalists and citizen journalists, which may include ensuring that law enforcement agencies, security personnel and armed forces are provided with training on international human rights law and international humanitarian law, including their obligation to protect journalists and to respect them as civilians during armed conflict.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Humanitarian
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2010
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and press freedom 2010, para. 80
- Paragraph text
- Impunity for those who attack and/or kill journalists remains a central obstacle to guaranteeing the protection of journalists. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned that perpetrators have enjoyed total impunity in 94 per cent of cases in which journalists were murdered in 2009, and in only 2 per cent of cases of attacks against journalists in 2009 were the offences tried before the competent authorities and the perpetrators and instigators prosecuted.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2010
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 98
- Paragraph text
- The precarious situation of journalists is further exacerbated by a culture of impunity. Failure to undertake effective investigations and to prosecute those responsible for attacks against journalists perpetrates further violence and undermines the ability of journalists to report on similar matters in the future.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Civil & Political Rights
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2012
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Contemporary challenges to freedom of expression 2016, para. 48
- Paragraph text
- Women may also face particular restrictions targeting their expression. In 2013, the Human Rights Council affirmed the fundamental role that freedom of opinion and expression plays in the ability of women to interact with society at large, in particular in the realms of economic and political participation, and called upon States to promote, respect and ensure women's exercise of freedom of opinion and expression, both online and offline, including as members of NGOs and other associations (see Council resolution 23/2). Unfortunately, this commitment remains largely unfulfilled in many parts of the world. In 2014, in Saudi Arabia, two advocates for the rights of women were detained for driving. Earlier in 2016, I, along with other mandate holders, raised concerns about the systematic attacks and threats of sexual and physical violence made against three women human rights defenders and two women human rights lawyers in the State of Chhattisgarh, India.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Civil & Political Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Gender
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Women
- Year
- 2016
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Contemporary challenges to freedom of expression 2016, para. 42
- Paragraph text
- Non-State actors are especially responsible for attacks on individuals for expression of belief. Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), its affiliates and some of its supporters have committed atrocity after atrocity around the world on the basis of religious or ethnic affiliation or individual expression of belief. The attacks on Charlie Hebdo in Paris, for instance, were directed specifically against satirists who criticized all forms of dogma, religious or otherwise, although the killers in this instance were allegedly incensed over depictions of the Prophet Mohammed. Beyond ISIL, the series of murders of bloggers in Bangladesh reflects an effort to silence views that reject religious belief altogether. Such assaults are grave attacks on opinion, expression and belief, designed to silence - in a very direct way - not only the specific targets but also anyone who dares express an alternative viewpoint.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Equality & Inclusion
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2016
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Contemporary challenges to freedom of expression 2016, para. 38
- Paragraph text
- In the context of protests, it is common for journalists to be detained and prohibited from reporting. Such has been the case in Egypt, where journalists collecting information about demonstrations have been detained and charged on various grounds, including involvement in terrorism. At least seven journalists and media workers in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela were arrested and their equipment confiscated for covering looting and public protests. It may also be the case that local officials carry out their functions without appropriately taking into account the roles journalists play, in particular during protests. For instance, a journalist in Mexico covering protests was allegedly detained and severely mistreated by the local authorities. In the United States, journalists covering the protests in Ferguson, Missouri, in 2014 were subjected to detention by the local authorities.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Humanitarian
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2016
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
The right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral contexts 2014, para. 83b
- Paragraph text
- [Accountability mechanisms are a crucial means of ensuring that regulatory frameworks are enforced and abuses of power are rectified. Impunity is a root cause of the lack of safety faced by journalists. In the context of promoting free expression during electoral processes, States should:] Guarantee the safety of journalists and media workers; legislative and policy measures must be adopted to prevent attacks against journalists and to eradicate impunity in relation to episodes of violence and intimidation;
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2014
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
The right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral contexts 2014, para. 36
- Paragraph text
- The State is not the only perpetrator of violence against journalists during elections; however it has a permanent responsibility to ensure the safety of all journalists at all times. In some countries, media organizations, independent editors and journalists receive threats and intimidation from militant groups or political parties demanding coverage for their messages. In many cases the State fails to take sufficient measures to protect journalists from such harassment, and responds by fining or otherwise punishing the media for broadcasting messages by banned organizations, despite the media being forced to do so under threat.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2014
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 94
- Paragraph text
- Central challenges in relation to human rights violations committed against journalists include various forms of intimidation, physical attacks - including abductions and killings -, arbitrary detention, as well as impunity and the use of criminal laws to imprison and intimidate journalists. Female journalists face additional risks, such as sexual assault, mob-related sexual violence at public events or sexual abuse in detention or captivity. Due to social, cultural and professional stigmas, many of these attacks are not reported.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Women
- Year
- 2012
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 93
- Paragraph text
- While armed conflict situations may place journalists at risk, the Special Rapporteur notes that the majority of attacks against journalists take place outside of armed conflict situations. Individuals who cover public demonstrations, report on issues such as corruption, human rights violations, environmental issues, organized crime, drug trafficking, public crises or emergencies are placed at particular risk of violence. Nevertheless, the Special Rapporteur also reiterates the importance of the following concerns.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Humanitarian
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2012
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 68
- Paragraph text
- In the case of Guatemala, the International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG), which began operations in September 2007, has an unprecedented mandate among United Nations and other international efforts to promote accountability and strengthen the rule of law. The Commission aims to investigate and dismantle violent criminal organizations in Guatemala, which are believed to be among the cornerstones of impunity in the country, threatening the justice system and democratic institutions. The Commission carries out independent investigations in accordance with international human rights standards under Guatemalan law and following Guatemalan procedure. It fortifies Guatemala's public policy framework and justice sector institutions, making proposals for legal reforms, providing technical assistance to justice sector institutions, and working closely with the Attorney General's Office on the prosecution of symbolic cases. Although the CICIG is not specifically directed towards journalists, it draws attention to issues at the heart of the problem of impunity.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2012
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 66
- Paragraph text
- According to the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), in nine out of 10 cases in which journalists are murdered, the perpetrators go free. As at 20 March 2012, 565 journalists have been murdered with impunity since 1992. The root causes of impunity may vary from context to context, but can mainly be attributed to lack of political will to pursue investigations, including for fear of reprisal at the hands of powerful criminal networks, inadequate legal framework and a weak judicial system, ineffectiveness of police forces and judicial bodies and lack of expertise, lack of resources allocated to law enforcement and the justice system, as well as negligence and corruption. Against these obstacles, many journalists choose not to report threats or incidents of physical attack, further fuelling the cycle of impunity.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2012
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 65
- Paragraph text
- One of the biggest challenges to ensuring the protection of journalists is impunity or the failure to bring to justice the perpetrators of human rights violations. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur has on many occasions stressed that impunity for those who attack and/or kill journalists is a central obstacle to guaranteeing the protection of journalists and press freedom, as it emboldens perpetrators as well as would-be perpetrators to attack journalists with no legal consequences. Indeed, impunity is one, if not the main cause of the unacceptably high number of journalists who are attacked or killed every year. States must recognize that in cases of violence against journalists, impunity generates more violence in a vicious cycle.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2012
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Protection of journalists and media freedom 2012, para. 48
- Paragraph text
- The challenges that journalists encounter in undertaking their professional work are manifold. While the death or plight of foreign journalists in armed conflict situations frequently draw the attention of the international community, local journalists continue to face daily challenges in situations that have not reached the threshold of an armed conflict, but may be characterized by violence, lawlessness and/or repression. These range from restrictions to movement, including deportations and denial of access into a country or a particular area; arbitrary arrests and detention, particularly during public crises or demonstrations; torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, including sexual violence against female journalists; confiscation of and damages to equipment, information theft, illegal surveillance and office break-ins; intimidation, including summons to police stations for questioning, harassment of family members, death threats, stigmatization and smear campaigns to discredit journalists; abductions or enforced disappearance to killings.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Humanitarian
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Families
- Year
- 2012
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Hate speech and incitement to hatred 2012, para. 30
- Paragraph text
- While politicians and the media often play a central role in fostering hate speech offline, the ease with which anyone can post comments on the Internet, and that this can be done anonymously, have further helped hate speech to spread. In one recent example, when a Canadian-American campaigner for women's rights launched an online fundraising campaign for a series of short videos that would examine gender prejudices and the use of violence in video games, she was threatened with violence, death, sexual assault and rape, and an online interactive game was launched in which players were invited to beat her "black and blue". In Maldives, a blogger and human rights campaigner advocating religious freedom was forced to flee the country after being subjected to an online hate campaign in the social media and having his throat slit. In addition, radical right-wing, xenophobic or extremist groups have used the Internet to spread messages of hate.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Equality & Inclusion
- Gender
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Women
- Year
- 2012
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Hate speech and incitement to hatred 2012, para. 27
- Paragraph text
- In Africa, there have been violent riots (for example, in Kenya, caused by alleged election-rigging and fuelled by tribal tension, and in Nigeria, on the basis of tribal tensions), leading to the deaths of several thousand people; attacks by Muslim villagers against Coptic Christians in Egypt; and various forms of incitement to violence and hatred on the basis of sexual orientation by politicians, the media and religious leaders in Uganda, as epitomized by the tragic killing of David Kato, whose name, photograph and description had been published by the Sunday Pepper newspaper in what it described as a "killer dossier".
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Humanitarian
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2012
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph
Groups in need of attention, limitations to the right to freedom of expression, and protection of journalists 2010, para. 95
- Paragraph text
- The States concerned maintain that violence against journalists has varied causes, which may be true. However, the Special Rapporteur believes that States have a duty to carry out exhaustive investigations into each case and to bring criminal charges against those responsible. Failure to perform this duty creates a culture of impunity which perpetuates the violence. Systematically allowing those responsible for killing journalists or social communicators to go unpunished could be interpreted as tolerance or acquiescence on the part of the State.
- Body
- Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression
- Document type
- Special Procedures' report
- Topic(s)
- Civil & Political Rights
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Violence
- Person(s) affected
- Activists
- Year
- 2010
- Date added
- Aug 19, 2019
Paragraph