CEDAW/C/GC/40 online gender-based violence against women and harassment, and ensure accountability through the adoption and implementation of laws and international regulations with an approach based in human rights, in particular women’s rights; (h) Collect and publish systematic disaggregated data on the extent, causes and effects of gender-based violence against women in decision-making, and on the effectiveness of prevention and response measures and tailor and improve systems and measures accordingly; (i) 7. Apply a strong intersectional perspective in all measures taken. Representation of women’s rights organizations in decision-making 40. In its general recommendations No. 23 (1997), No. 30 (2013) on women in conflict prevention, conflict and post-conflict situations, No. 34 (2016), No. 37 (2018) and No. 39 (2022), the Committee calls upon States parties to ensure that civil society representatives are consulted and can actively shape policy formulation, implementation and monitoring in all areas and at all levels. Currently, spaces to consult with women’s and girls’ rights civil society organizations are limited and often not institutionalized, and consultation is frequently limited to issues narrowly perceived as “women’s issues”, rather than the full range of local, national, regional and international policy issues. 41. The Committee recommends that States parties: (a) Ensure safe and independent spaces for women’s and girls’ rights organizations, including youth-led and youth-focused organizations, and women human rights defenders to contribute directly and meaningfully to policymaking on all local, national, regional and international issues; (b) Institutionalize safe and independent regular consultations with women’s and girls’ civil society organizations and women human rights defenders, including regarding new and/or growing challenges in relation to politics, security, the economy, technology, health and the environment; (c) Provide access to independent capacity-building to expand the expertise of women’s and girls’ civil society organizations and women human rights defenders to participate in all decision-making areas, including those not narrowly perceived as “women’s issues”, and to expand expertise on women’s rights of all other civil society organizations; (d) Proactively ensure that women’s civil society organizations and women human rights defenders representing women and girls who are subjected to intersectional discrimination can participate equally in such spaces and ensure the equal consideration of their perspectives. B. 1. (a) Specific obligations to achieve the equal and inclusive representation of women in decision-making systems Parity in political and public decision-making Right to vote 42. Under article 7 (a), women are guaranteed the right to vote in all elections and referendums. However, despite legal reforms, women still face barriers to fully exercising this right. In its general recommendation No. 21 (1994) on equality in marriage and family relations, the Committee notes that nationality laws may deprive women of their right to vote based on family or marital status and, in its general recommendation No. 23 (1997), the Committee highlights obstacles, including 18/29 24-20036