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Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 37
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- Agroecological practices require the supply of public goods such as extension services, storage facilities, rural infrastructure (roads, electricity, information and communication technologies) and therefore access to regional and local markets, access to credit and insurance against weather-related risks, agricultural research and development, education, and support to farmer's organizations and cooperatives. While this requires funding, the investment can be significantly more sustainable than the provision of private goods, such as fertilizers or pesticides that farmers can only afford so long as they are subsidized. While many efforts have been made since 2008 to reinvest in agriculture, too little attention has been paid to the differences between the various types of investment required and to understanding their impacts on the reduction of rural poverty. This has led World Bank economists to note that "underinvestment in agriculture is […] compounded by extensive misinvestment" with a bias towards the provision of private goods, sometimes motivated by political considerations. Research based on the study of 15 Latin American countries over the period 1985-2001 in which government subsidies for private goods was distinguished from expenditures in public goods indicated that, within a fixed national agriculture budget, a reallocation of 10 per cent of spending to supplying public goods increases agricultural per capita income by 5 per cent, while a 10 per cent increase in public spending on agriculture, keeping the spending composition constant, increases per capita agricultural income by only 2 per cent. In other words, "even without changing overall expenditures, governments can improve the economic performance of their agricultural sectors by devoting a greater share of those expenditures to social services and public goods instead of non-social subsidies." Thus, while the provision or subsidization of private goods may be necessary up to a point, the opportunity costs should be carefully considered.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Medio de adopción
- N.A.
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- Economic Rights
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Poverty
- Personas afectadas
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- 2011
Párrafo
Human rights criteria for making contract farming and other business models inclusive of small-scale farmers 2011, para. 51
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- Governments should ensure that the degree of competition among traders is sufficient to prevent farmers from being locked into unequal relationships with a particular trader in the absence of alternative buyers for a given crop. In particular, Governments should ensure that the expansion of contract farming does not result in the dismantling of public support schemes and the privatization of agricultural extension services, which would narrow the range of options available to small-scale farmers and increase the asymmetry of power between unorganized small-scale farmers and private actors operating on a national, regional or global scale.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Medio de adopción
- N.A.
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- Economic Rights
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personas afectadas
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- 2011
Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 12
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- Agroecology is both a science and a set of practices. It was created by the convergence of two scientific disciplines: agronomy and ecology. As a science, agroecology is the "application of ecological science to the study, design and management of sustainable agroecosystems." As a set of agricultural practices, agroecology seeks ways to enhance agricultural systems by mimicking natural processes, thus creating beneficial biological interactions and synergies among the components of the agroecosystem. It provides the most favourable soil conditions for plant growth, particularly by managing organic matter and by raising soil biotic activity. The core principles of agroecology include recycling nutrients and energy on the farm, rather than introducing external inputs; integrating crops and livestock; diversifying species and genetic resources in agroecosystems over time and space; and focusing on interactions and productivity across the agricultural system, rather than focusing on individual species. Agroecology is highly knowledge-intensive, based on techniques that are not delivered top-down but developed on the basis of farmers' knowledge and experimentation.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- N.A.
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- Environment
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- 2011
Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 21
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- By enhancing on-farm fertility production, agroecology reduces farmers' reliance on external inputs and state subsidies. This, in turn, makes vulnerable smallholders less dependent on local retailers and moneylenders. One key reason why agroecology helps to support incomes in rural areas is because it promotes on-farm fertility generation. Indeed, supplying nutrients to the soil does not necessarily require adding mineral fertilizers. It can be done by applying livestock manure or by growing green manures. Farmers can also establish a "fertilizer factory in the fields" by planting trees that take nitrogen out of the air and "fix" it in their leaves, which are subsequently incorporated into the soil. That, in essence, is the result of planting Faidherbia albida, a nitrogen-fixing acacia species indigenous to Africa and widespread throughout the continent. Since this tree goes dormant and sheds its foliage during the early rainy season at the time when field crops are being established, it does not compete significantly with them for light, nutrients or water during the growing season; yet it allows a significant increase in yields of the maize with which it is combined, particularly in conditions of low soil fertility. In Zambia, unfertilized maize yields in the vicinity of Faidherbia trees averaged 4.1 t/ha, compared to 1.3 t/ha nearby, but beyond the tree canopy. Similar results were observed in Malawi, where this tree was also widely used. The use of such nitrogen-fixing trees avoids dependence on synthetic fertilizers, the price of which has been increasingly high and volatile over the past few years, exceeding food commodity prices, even when the latter reached a peak in July 2008. In this way, whatever financial assets the household has can be used on other essentials, such as education or medicine.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- 2011
Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 34
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- State support can build on those efforts. In Brazil, for example, the 2010 Act on extension and technical assistance for family farming and agrarian reform (Lei 12.188/2010) prioritizes support to rural extension activities in ecological agriculture. This Act will accentuate the qualitative shift in the Brazilian extension services which is parallel to quantitative changes in the last decade. Indeed, extension activities organized under the Brazilian National Rural Extension Policy (2003) have increased from an average of 2,000 activities/year in 2004-2005 to an average of close to 30,000/year in 2007-2009. Such efforts enable a rapid dissemination of best practices, including agroecological practices, especially when farmers participate in the system and are not mere receivers of trainings.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 32
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- The participation of farmers is vital for the success of agroecological practices. So far, agroecology has been developed by grassroots organizations and NGOs, and it has spread through farmer field schools and farmers' movements, such as the Campesino a Campesino movement in Central America. Experience with agroecological techniques is growing everyday within peasant networks such as La Via Campesina and the AgriCultures Network (former LEISA) globally; Réseau des Organisations Paysannes et des Producteurs Agricoles de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (ROPPA), Eastern & Southern Africa Farmers' Forum (ESAFF), and PELUM (Participatory Ecological Land Use Management) network in Africa, MASIPAG network in the Philippines (Magsasaka at Siyentista Tungo sa Pag-unlad ng Agrikultura), or Assessoria e Serviços a Projetos em Agricultura Alternativa (AS-PTA) and Movimento dos Trabalhadores Sem Terra (MST) in Brazil.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 35
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- Scaling up agroecology in order to maximize its positive impacts on farmers' incomes, productivity and the environment means both (horizontally) increasing the areas cultivated by agroecological techniques and (vertically) creating an enabling framework for the farmers. Innovative ways of ensuring horizontal expansion include the "pilot scaling up" strategy such as the one successfully implemented in the Chinyanja Triangle (Mozambique, Malawi and Zambia) and West and Central Africa by the World Agroforestry Centre for tree domestication. The strategy relies on the identification of Pilot Scaling Up Areas (PSUAs) and the establishment of "scaling up platforms," the formation of "change teams" and the identification of partners: from grassroots organization to private companies. The targeting of the zones where the adoption of agroecology has the greatest potential, based on biophysical criteria, may be facilitated by Geographic Information Systems (GIS), such as those that have been used both in Europe and in Southern Africa in order to identify the suitability areas for the scaling up of agroforestry systems. As mentioned earlier, the dissemination of the push-pull strategy in East Africa by the International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) was based both on demonstration fields managed by model farmers, which attracts visits by other farmers during field days, and on partnerships with national research systems in neighbouring countries that facilitated take-up of this approach. Localized innovations can spread rapidly through such approaches (see Figure 2 below).
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 44
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- [As part of their obligation to devote the maximum of their available resources to the progressive realization of the right to food, States should implement public policies supporting the adoption of agroecological practices by:] making reference to agroecology and sustainable agriculture in national strategies for the realisation of the right to food and by including measures adopted in the agricultural sector in national adaptation plans of action (NAPAs) and in the list of nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs) adopted by countries in their efforts to mitigate climate change;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 47
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- At its 36th session, the Committee on World Food Security (CFS) requested its High-Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) to examine the respective roles of large-scale plantations and small-scale farming, and to review existing assessments and initiatives on the effects of climate change on food security and nutrition, with a view to informing the 37th CFS session. The HLPE and the CFS should assess the potential of agroecology to meet the current challenges in the areas of food security and nutrition, with a view to informing the preparation of the Global Strategic Framework for Food and Nutrition Security (GSF) in 2012, and to strengthening the consistency between the international agendas in the areas of climate change and agricultural development respectively.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 10
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- The world's oceans and many of the world's lakes and rivers face serious threats. Without considerable effort to reverse existing trends, the ability of these aquatic ecosystems to continue to provide healthy quantities of fish will further decline. As acknowledged in paragraphs 163 to 168 of the outcome document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, the situation is worsening rapidly as the impacts of overfishing, destructive fishing and discards are exacerbated by the effects of climate change, pollution and habitat destruction.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 16
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- These direct threats to the sustainability of fish production systems are magnified by the impacts of climate change. The rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide leads to increased sea temperatures and ocean acidification, threatening many calcifying organisms such as molluscs, plankton and coral reefs. This reduces dependent fish populations and is exacerbated by unsustainable fishing practices. Warmer sea temperatures may lead to more frequent and severe outbreaks of algal blooms, which can have a devastating impact on fish populations. Extreme climate-related events may destroy coastal habitats. Marine species respond to the warming of oceans by moving to colder waters, which includes shifting their latitudinal range or moving to greater depths. Some fish will gradually move away from rich tropical waters, resulting in localized extinctions and the invasion of some species into waters where they were previously not found.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 20
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- International trade in fish products rose from 8 million tons in 1976, with a value of about $8 billion, to 57 million tonnes in 2010, worth an estimated $102 billion. Approximately 40 per cent of all fish production is traded internationally, which is more than other foods such as rice (5 per cent) and wheat (20 per cent). For many low-income food-deficit countries or developing countries, the fisheries sector has become an increasingly important, but undervalued, economic sector, both as a source of export revenue and as a source of State revenue from selling access to distant-water fishing fleets. The overall economic, social and food security impacts of this increase in international trade of fish products are, however, ambiguous
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 25
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- The creation of fisheries for export markets and the increasing investments of foreign fishing firms may lead to new jobs on fishing boats and at the processing stage (in countries that have the appropriate infrastructure). In many countries, however, jobs on foreign vessels are not open to local citizens and, even where they are, wages and job security are often poor and dangerous. In a 1999 study on safety and health in the fishing industry, the International Labour Organization estimated that 24,000 people working in the fish industry died annually from work-related causes. More recent research has exposed poor, even slave-like, working conditions in many industrial vessels operating illegally in developing coastal countries. This highlights the importance of swift and wide ratification of the Convention concerning Work in the Fishing Sector (Convention No. 188) and the need to introduce provisions concerning work conditions on-board fishing vessels in fishing access agreements.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 44
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- [As part of their obligation to devote the maximum of their available resources to the progressive realization of the right to food, States should implement public policies supporting the adoption of agroecological practices by:] reorienting public spending in agriculture by prioritizing the provision of public goods, such as extension services, rural infrastructures and agricultural research, and by building on the complementary strengths of seeds-and-breeds and agroecological methods, allocating resources to both, and exploring the synergies, such as linking fertilizer subsidies directly to agroecological investments on the farm ("subsidy to sustainability");
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- 2011
Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 45
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- Although success in some countries to restore fish stocks to healthy levels has been achieved, global progress in implementing the various commitments remains disappointing, as confirmed in studies of fisheries management effectiveness. Other targets in the Plan of Action of the World Summit on Sustainable Development have largely been missed. Although fishing capacity has declined in some countries since 2002, it has increased globally from about 4.02 billion kilowatt-days in 2002 to 4.35 billion kilowatt-days in 2010. The total coverage of marine protected areas is estimated at less than 2 per cent.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 45
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- [Donors should:] engage in long-term relationships with partner countries, supporting ambitious programs and policies to scale up agroecological approaches for lasting change, including genuine multi-polar engagement with public authorities and experts and existing local organizations of food providers (farmers, pastoralists, forest dwellers) and the networks they form, such as ROPPA, ESAFF, La Via Campesina, and PELUM, which have accumulated experience that could be the basis for rapid scaling-up of best practices;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 4
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- The total contribution by fisheries to food consumption has grown substantially over the past 50 years, averaging an increase of more than 3 per cent annually. Global per capita fish consumption stands at some 18.4 kg per annum, although significant regional differences exist. In low-income food-deficit countries (excluding China), per capita fish consumption stands at some 10 kg, compared to approximately 29 kg in industrialized countries. Africa has the lowest per capita fish consumption of all continents, at 9.1 kg. Even these aggregate figures mask considerable variations between and within countries, however. Fish consumption, and dependency on fish, can be much higher in island and coastal countries, and in countries with large freshwater lakes and rivers. Furthermore, the lower average fish consumption in many developing countries notwithstanding, fish represents a higher proportion of dietary animal protein in developing countries and low-income food-deficit countries than in developed countries. Globally, fish represents 15 per cent of all animal protein consumed by people, whereas in low-income food-deficit countries the proportion is higher, at about 20 per cent, and in Asia it is higher still, at about 23 per cent. In West and Central African countries such as the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Gabon and Ghana, fish provides almost half of a person's animal protein needs. Indeed, there are at least 30 countries in which fisheries contribute more than one third of total animal protein supply, 22 of which are low-income food-deficit countries.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 45
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- [Donors should:] encourage South-South and North-South cooperation on the dissemination and adoption of agroecological practices;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
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- 2011
Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 9
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- Maintaining, and in some cases increasing, fish supply can contribute significantly to the realization of the right to food in many countries, especially where alternative sources of high-quality protein are scarce or unaffordable. As demand for fish increases as a result of population growth and urbanization, however, supply can be matched only by further overfishing (beyond the carrying capacity of stocks) and reliance on industrial fishing methods that have profound environmental impacts, or by other means, including the development of aquaculture, the reduction of post-harvest losses and of the diversion of fish for fishmeal and other non-food uses, or the prohibition of the use of destructive fishing gear. Although a decline in per capita fish-food supply is measurable today only in sub-Saharan Africa and is projected for the Pacific island countries and territories, a number of trends now result in serious threats to fish-food availability on a worldwide basis.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 15
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- In comparison to some industrial fishing methods, small-scale fisheries rarely discard catches and tend to have a much lower impact on aquatic habitats. In many parts of the world, however, the increase in the number of small-scale fishers is causing stress on fish populations. A minority of small-scale fishers also uses destructive methods of fishing, such as encroachment into protected areas and the use of dynamite fishing, poisons to catch reef fish and extremely fine nets that are banned because of their impact on juvenile fish. In one report on illegal fishing in West Africa, it is claimed that the scale of illegal/unreported fishing by the artisanal fishing fleet is of a similar magnitude to that found in the industrial sector.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 19
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- Lastly, the future of fishing is threatened by habitat loss. Mangrove forests, seagrass meadows, salt marshes and coral reefs play a vital role in the reproductive cycles of many fish and marine species. Since the 1940s, however, 35 per cent of the world's mangrove forests has been destroyed and one third of seagrass areas and 25 per cent of salt marshes have been lost. For some habitats, declines are accelerating. Before 1990, seagrass meadows were being lost at a rate of about 1 per cent annually; since 1990, this rate has increased to 7 per cent. One third of coral reefs has disappeared during the past 50 years.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 33
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- Aquaculture has developed rapidly over the past few decades and is now considered the fastest-growing food production system in the world. Between 1980 and 2010, global fish-food production from aquaculture expanded twelvefold and, by 2010, total production from aquaculture was measured at 79 million tons, worth $125 billion. Aquaculture may provide up to 45 per cent of all fish for direct human consumption, although that figure does not consider the large amount of unrecorded fish caught by both small-scale and industrial fisheries. There are, however, strong regional imbalances. About 62 per cent of the world's total aquaculture production comes from China, and the next five largest producers are all in Asia, which accounts for about 88 per cent of all aquaculture production.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 46
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- The widespread failure to implement responsible fisheries management notwithstanding, the situation can be rectified. For example, there has been notable progress in creating marine protected areas, with some of the largest protected areas being declared recently, including in northern Australia and in the Indian Ocean surrounding the Chagos Islands. During the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Maldives announced that its entire territorial waters would become a marine reserve by 2017 and industrial fishing and extractive industries therein would be banned. Notwithstanding the benefits expected to accrue from marine protected areas and their relatively minor management costs (around $2 billion in total, compared to the $16 billion spent annually on subsidies in the fishing sector), marine protected areas cannot replace regulation of fishing efforts and harvesting capacity. In addition, they can negatively affect the livelihoods of small-scale fishers and local food security.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 50c
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- [The Special Rapporteur has previously described the role that human rights impact assessments of trade and investment agreements can play in allowing countries to discharge their human rights obligations (see A/HRC/19/59/Add.5). Trade and access agreements in fisheries provide another such illustration. The above assessment of the potential opportunities and risks of such agreements (see paras. 29-32) may serve to identify the questions that should be asked in any impact assessment before the conclusion of an agreement by the coastal State. These are, for example:] Are measures in place to ensure that small-scale fishers are equipped to benefit from the opportunities created by trade agreements, in particular by improving their ability to comply with standards and their bargaining position vis-à-vis buyers?
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 27
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- The employment benefits from the increase of commercial exports must be weighed against the costs. Such an increase may lead to demand-led overfishing and sharpen the competition for resources between industrial and small-scale fishing. Export increases may over time lead to the loss of jobs for fishers in the small-scale sector. In Argentina, for example, the considerable expansion of industrial pelagic fisheries in the 1990s saw the gradual control of those fisheries by foreign-owned fishing enterprises, which displaced smaller, more labour-intensive local companies. The growth of export-oriented fisheries may also lead to employment losses for the fish processors working in the small-scale sector supplying local or regional markets, as was seen in Kenya with the growth in commercial exports of Nile perch to Europe.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- Economic Rights
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 34
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- The impressive growth of aquaculture is seen, in part, as a response to the challenges discussed above, in particular to the stagnating wild-capture fisheries. While this holds true in Asia, fish farming is minimal in Africa, the Pacific and Latin America. Consequently, it remains difficult, in the absence of adequate data, to assess whether aquaculture is genuinely supporting food availability and accessibility for people living in poverty. Although small-scale aquaculture can contribute significantly to local food security, considerable investment and growth in aquaculture is for the benefit of exports or for middle-class urban consumers.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 44
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- Progress is also being made in managing coastal and inshore areas fished predominantly by small-scale fishers. The limitations of top-down management strategies are now better appreciated and the participation of fishing communities is seen as paramount, as is the integration of local fishers' knowledge of fish and marine habitat changes. The need for community co-management arrangements in fisheries is reinforced in the draft FAO guidelines for securing sustainable small-scale fisheries, which are being finalized through extensive stakeholder consultations at the time of writing.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Environment
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 47
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- As mentioned in paragraph 11 of the present report, subsidies, at least those that support increased industrial fishing capacity, may encourage overfishing. At the Fourth Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization (WTO), held in Doha in November 2001, negotiations to clarify and improve WTO disciplines on fisheries subsidies were initiated. At the Sixth Ministerial Conference of WTO, held in Hong Kong, China, in December 2005, broad agreement was reached on strengthening those disciplines, including a prohibition of fisheries subsidies that directly contributed to overcapacity and overfishing. In 2007, the Chair of the Negotiating Group on Rules submitted recommendations that included exemptions for low-income food-deficit countries, in particular for subsidies that promoted the development of and supported small-scale fishers. Such exemptions would be conditional on countries showing that subsidies were provided only where there were robust measures to protect fish stocks and prevent overfishing. While this recommendation has gained widespread approval, there have been more controversial calls to expand the exemptions to other developing countries. Some States have expressed doubts over the contribution of subsidies to overfishing. Disagreements also exist as to exactly what type of subsidies should be prohibited, with opinions differing on issues such as the building of ports and fisheries access agreements. Lastly, there are concerns that, even if agreement is reached, enforcing the WTO disciplines will be extremely difficult, given that 90 per cent of fisheries subsidies are confidential and beyond public scrutiny.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Medio de adopción
- N.A.
- Temas
- Economic Rights
- Environment
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2012
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Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 62b
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- [Flag States should protect labour rights in the fishing industry, including by ratifying and implementing the Convention concerning Work in the Fishing Sector (Convention No. 188). In addition, flag States should:] When engaging in fishing access agreements, agree to introduce provisions concerning conditions of work in the fishing industry; support the preparation of human rights impact assessments; and support the efforts of coastal States to regulate the fishing practices of industrial vessels operating in exclusive economic zones.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Medio de adopción
- N.A.
- Temas
- Economic Rights
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2012
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Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 17
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- Oil spills, agricultural and industrial run-off, pollution from aquaculture and the enormous accumulation of plastic debris in water will have lasting effects on marine wildlife. Both climate change and pollution have contributed to dead zones in the ocean, where oxygen levels in surface water are extremely low and can no longer support wildlife. Dead zones are linked with increasingly frequent outbreaks of red tides, where mass mortality events of fish and marine mammals are caused by toxin build-ups owing to lower oxygen levels in their environment.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Medio de adopción
- N.A.
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2012
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