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Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 37
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- Agroecological practices require the supply of public goods such as extension services, storage facilities, rural infrastructure (roads, electricity, information and communication technologies) and therefore access to regional and local markets, access to credit and insurance against weather-related risks, agricultural research and development, education, and support to farmer's organizations and cooperatives. While this requires funding, the investment can be significantly more sustainable than the provision of private goods, such as fertilizers or pesticides that farmers can only afford so long as they are subsidized. While many efforts have been made since 2008 to reinvest in agriculture, too little attention has been paid to the differences between the various types of investment required and to understanding their impacts on the reduction of rural poverty. This has led World Bank economists to note that "underinvestment in agriculture is […] compounded by extensive misinvestment" with a bias towards the provision of private goods, sometimes motivated by political considerations. Research based on the study of 15 Latin American countries over the period 1985-2001 in which government subsidies for private goods was distinguished from expenditures in public goods indicated that, within a fixed national agriculture budget, a reallocation of 10 per cent of spending to supplying public goods increases agricultural per capita income by 5 per cent, while a 10 per cent increase in public spending on agriculture, keeping the spending composition constant, increases per capita agricultural income by only 2 per cent. In other words, "even without changing overall expenditures, governments can improve the economic performance of their agricultural sectors by devoting a greater share of those expenditures to social services and public goods instead of non-social subsidies." Thus, while the provision or subsidization of private goods may be necessary up to a point, the opportunity costs should be carefully considered.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Economic Rights
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
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Párrafo
Human rights criteria for making contract farming and other business models inclusive of small-scale farmers 2011, para. 51
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- Governments should ensure that the degree of competition among traders is sufficient to prevent farmers from being locked into unequal relationships with a particular trader in the absence of alternative buyers for a given crop. In particular, Governments should ensure that the expansion of contract farming does not result in the dismantling of public support schemes and the privatization of agricultural extension services, which would narrow the range of options available to small-scale farmers and increase the asymmetry of power between unorganized small-scale farmers and private actors operating on a national, regional or global scale.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- Economic Rights
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- 2011
Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 12
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- Agroecology is both a science and a set of practices. It was created by the convergence of two scientific disciplines: agronomy and ecology. As a science, agroecology is the "application of ecological science to the study, design and management of sustainable agroecosystems." As a set of agricultural practices, agroecology seeks ways to enhance agricultural systems by mimicking natural processes, thus creating beneficial biological interactions and synergies among the components of the agroecosystem. It provides the most favourable soil conditions for plant growth, particularly by managing organic matter and by raising soil biotic activity. The core principles of agroecology include recycling nutrients and energy on the farm, rather than introducing external inputs; integrating crops and livestock; diversifying species and genetic resources in agroecosystems over time and space; and focusing on interactions and productivity across the agricultural system, rather than focusing on individual species. Agroecology is highly knowledge-intensive, based on techniques that are not delivered top-down but developed on the basis of farmers' knowledge and experimentation.
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 21
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- By enhancing on-farm fertility production, agroecology reduces farmers' reliance on external inputs and state subsidies. This, in turn, makes vulnerable smallholders less dependent on local retailers and moneylenders. One key reason why agroecology helps to support incomes in rural areas is because it promotes on-farm fertility generation. Indeed, supplying nutrients to the soil does not necessarily require adding mineral fertilizers. It can be done by applying livestock manure or by growing green manures. Farmers can also establish a "fertilizer factory in the fields" by planting trees that take nitrogen out of the air and "fix" it in their leaves, which are subsequently incorporated into the soil. That, in essence, is the result of planting Faidherbia albida, a nitrogen-fixing acacia species indigenous to Africa and widespread throughout the continent. Since this tree goes dormant and sheds its foliage during the early rainy season at the time when field crops are being established, it does not compete significantly with them for light, nutrients or water during the growing season; yet it allows a significant increase in yields of the maize with which it is combined, particularly in conditions of low soil fertility. In Zambia, unfertilized maize yields in the vicinity of Faidherbia trees averaged 4.1 t/ha, compared to 1.3 t/ha nearby, but beyond the tree canopy. Similar results were observed in Malawi, where this tree was also widely used. The use of such nitrogen-fixing trees avoids dependence on synthetic fertilizers, the price of which has been increasingly high and volatile over the past few years, exceeding food commodity prices, even when the latter reached a peak in July 2008. In this way, whatever financial assets the household has can be used on other essentials, such as education or medicine.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 27
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- The diversity of species on farms managed following agroecological principles, as well as in urban or peri-urban agriculture, is an important asset in this regard. For example, it has been estimated that indigenous fruits contribute on average about 42 per cent of the natural food-basket that rural households rely on in southern Africa. This is not only an important source of vitamins and other micronutrients, but it also may be critical for sustenance during lean seasons. Nutritional diversity, enabled by increased diversity in the field, is of particular importance to children and women.
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 34
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- State support can build on those efforts. In Brazil, for example, the 2010 Act on extension and technical assistance for family farming and agrarian reform (Lei 12.188/2010) prioritizes support to rural extension activities in ecological agriculture. This Act will accentuate the qualitative shift in the Brazilian extension services which is parallel to quantitative changes in the last decade. Indeed, extension activities organized under the Brazilian National Rural Extension Policy (2003) have increased from an average of 2,000 activities/year in 2004-2005 to an average of close to 30,000/year in 2007-2009. Such efforts enable a rapid dissemination of best practices, including agroecological practices, especially when farmers participate in the system and are not mere receivers of trainings.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 26
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- In the past, Green Revolution approaches have focused primarily on boosting cereal crops. However, rice, wheat and maize are mainly sources of carbohydrates: they contain relatively little protein, and few of the other nutrients essential for adequate diets. The shift from diversified cropping systems to simplified cereal-based systems thus contributed to micronutrient malnutrition in many developing countries. Indeed, of the over 80,000 plant species available to humans, rice, wheat and maize supply the bulk of our protein and energy needs. Nutritionists now increasingly insist on the need for more diverse agro-ecosystems, in order to ensure a more diversified nutrient output of the farming systems.
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 32
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- The participation of farmers is vital for the success of agroecological practices. So far, agroecology has been developed by grassroots organizations and NGOs, and it has spread through farmer field schools and farmers' movements, such as the Campesino a Campesino movement in Central America. Experience with agroecological techniques is growing everyday within peasant networks such as La Via Campesina and the AgriCultures Network (former LEISA) globally; Réseau des Organisations Paysannes et des Producteurs Agricoles de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (ROPPA), Eastern & Southern Africa Farmers' Forum (ESAFF), and PELUM (Participatory Ecological Land Use Management) network in Africa, MASIPAG network in the Philippines (Magsasaka at Siyentista Tungo sa Pag-unlad ng Agrikultura), or Assessoria e Serviços a Projetos em Agricultura Alternativa (AS-PTA) and Movimento dos Trabalhadores Sem Terra (MST) in Brazil.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 28
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- Agroecology improves resilience to climate change. Climate change means more extreme weather-related events. The use of agroecological techniques can significantly cushion the negative impacts of such events, for resilience is strengthened by the use and promotion of agricultural biodiversity at ecosystem, farm system and farmer field levels, which is materialized by many agroecological approaches. Following Hurricane Mitch in 1998, a large-scale study on 180 communities of smallholders from southern to northern Nicaragua demonstrated that farming plots cropped with simple agroecological methods (including rock bunds or dikes, green manure, crop rotation and the incorporation of stubble, ditches, terraces, barriers, mulch, legumes, trees, plowing parallel to the slope, no-burn, live fences, and zero-tillage) had on average 40 per cent more topsoil, higher field moisture, less erosion and lower economic losses than control plots on conventional farms. On average, agroecological plots lost 18 per cent less arable land to landslides than conventional plots and had 69 per cent less gully erosion compared to conventional farms.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Environment
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 35
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- Scaling up agroecology in order to maximize its positive impacts on farmers' incomes, productivity and the environment means both (horizontally) increasing the areas cultivated by agroecological techniques and (vertically) creating an enabling framework for the farmers. Innovative ways of ensuring horizontal expansion include the "pilot scaling up" strategy such as the one successfully implemented in the Chinyanja Triangle (Mozambique, Malawi and Zambia) and West and Central Africa by the World Agroforestry Centre for tree domestication. The strategy relies on the identification of Pilot Scaling Up Areas (PSUAs) and the establishment of "scaling up platforms," the formation of "change teams" and the identification of partners: from grassroots organization to private companies. The targeting of the zones where the adoption of agroecology has the greatest potential, based on biophysical criteria, may be facilitated by Geographic Information Systems (GIS), such as those that have been used both in Europe and in Southern Africa in order to identify the suitability areas for the scaling up of agroforestry systems. As mentioned earlier, the dissemination of the push-pull strategy in East Africa by the International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) was based both on demonstration fields managed by model farmers, which attracts visits by other farmers during field days, and on partnerships with national research systems in neighbouring countries that facilitated take-up of this approach. Localized innovations can spread rapidly through such approaches (see Figure 2 below).
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 46
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- [The research community, including centres of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research and the Global Forum on Agricultural Research, should:] assess projects on the basis of a comprehensive set of performance criteria (impacts on incomes, resource efficiency, impacts on hunger and malnutrition, empowerment of beneficiaries, etc.) with indicators appropriately disaggregated by population to allow monitoring improvements in the status of vulnerable populations, taking into account the requirements of the right to food, in addition to classical agronomical measures.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 44
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- [As part of their obligation to devote the maximum of their available resources to the progressive realization of the right to food, States should implement public policies supporting the adoption of agroecological practices by:] making reference to agroecology and sustainable agriculture in national strategies for the realisation of the right to food and by including measures adopted in the agricultural sector in national adaptation plans of action (NAPAs) and in the list of nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs) adopted by countries in their efforts to mitigate climate change;
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 47
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- At its 36th session, the Committee on World Food Security (CFS) requested its High-Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) to examine the respective roles of large-scale plantations and small-scale farming, and to review existing assessments and initiatives on the effects of climate change on food security and nutrition, with a view to informing the 37th CFS session. The HLPE and the CFS should assess the potential of agroecology to meet the current challenges in the areas of food security and nutrition, with a view to informing the preparation of the Global Strategic Framework for Food and Nutrition Security (GSF) in 2012, and to strengthening the consistency between the international agendas in the areas of climate change and agricultural development respectively.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 10
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- The world's oceans and many of the world's lakes and rivers face serious threats. Without considerable effort to reverse existing trends, the ability of these aquatic ecosystems to continue to provide healthy quantities of fish will further decline. As acknowledged in paragraphs 163 to 168 of the outcome document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, the situation is worsening rapidly as the impacts of overfishing, destructive fishing and discards are exacerbated by the effects of climate change, pollution and habitat destruction.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 16
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- These direct threats to the sustainability of fish production systems are magnified by the impacts of climate change. The rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide leads to increased sea temperatures and ocean acidification, threatening many calcifying organisms such as molluscs, plankton and coral reefs. This reduces dependent fish populations and is exacerbated by unsustainable fishing practices. Warmer sea temperatures may lead to more frequent and severe outbreaks of algal blooms, which can have a devastating impact on fish populations. Extreme climate-related events may destroy coastal habitats. Marine species respond to the warming of oceans by moving to colder waters, which includes shifting their latitudinal range or moving to greater depths. Some fish will gradually move away from rich tropical waters, resulting in localized extinctions and the invasion of some species into waters where they were previously not found.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 20
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- International trade in fish products rose from 8 million tons in 1976, with a value of about $8 billion, to 57 million tonnes in 2010, worth an estimated $102 billion. Approximately 40 per cent of all fish production is traded internationally, which is more than other foods such as rice (5 per cent) and wheat (20 per cent). For many low-income food-deficit countries or developing countries, the fisheries sector has become an increasingly important, but undervalued, economic sector, both as a source of export revenue and as a source of State revenue from selling access to distant-water fishing fleets. The overall economic, social and food security impacts of this increase in international trade of fish products are, however, ambiguous
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 25
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- The creation of fisheries for export markets and the increasing investments of foreign fishing firms may lead to new jobs on fishing boats and at the processing stage (in countries that have the appropriate infrastructure). In many countries, however, jobs on foreign vessels are not open to local citizens and, even where they are, wages and job security are often poor and dangerous. In a 1999 study on safety and health in the fishing industry, the International Labour Organization estimated that 24,000 people working in the fish industry died annually from work-related causes. More recent research has exposed poor, even slave-like, working conditions in many industrial vessels operating illegally in developing coastal countries. This highlights the importance of swift and wide ratification of the Convention concerning Work in the Fishing Sector (Convention No. 188) and the need to introduce provisions concerning work conditions on-board fishing vessels in fishing access agreements.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 44
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- [As part of their obligation to devote the maximum of their available resources to the progressive realization of the right to food, States should implement public policies supporting the adoption of agroecological practices by:] reorienting public spending in agriculture by prioritizing the provision of public goods, such as extension services, rural infrastructures and agricultural research, and by building on the complementary strengths of seeds-and-breeds and agroecological methods, allocating resources to both, and exploring the synergies, such as linking fertilizer subsidies directly to agroecological investments on the farm ("subsidy to sustainability");
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 45
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- Although success in some countries to restore fish stocks to healthy levels has been achieved, global progress in implementing the various commitments remains disappointing, as confirmed in studies of fisheries management effectiveness. Other targets in the Plan of Action of the World Summit on Sustainable Development have largely been missed. Although fishing capacity has declined in some countries since 2002, it has increased globally from about 4.02 billion kilowatt-days in 2002 to 4.35 billion kilowatt-days in 2010. The total coverage of marine protected areas is estimated at less than 2 per cent.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 42
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- In previous reports, the Special Rapporteur has insisted on the need to facilitate the ability of small-scale farmers to join supply chains. Farmers should also be encouraged to move up the value chain by adding value to raw products through assuming increased roles in packaging, processing, and marketing their produce. Cooperatives can help them achieve economies of scale to facilitate adding value. This can also be supported by novel types of partnerships with the private sector. However, improved access to markets is essential if this is to happen. Better access to markets requires the development of communication routes, particularly rural feeder roads. The marginal returns to public spending on feeder roads for agriculture output and poverty reduction has been estimated to be "three to four times larger than the return to public spending on murram and tarmac roads." In addition, support for agroecological practices will fail to achieve the desired results if markets are not organized to protect farmers from volatile prices and the dumping of subsidized products on their local markets, which can seriously disrupt local production. Similarly, public procurement systems, fiscal incentives and credit, and land tenure policies - all areas on which the Special Rapporteur has made contributions in the past - must be aligned with the need to make the transition towards low-carbon and low-external-input modes of production in which farmers co-design the policies that affect them. The school-feeding programme in Brazil for instance, has been used as a leverage to support family farming through its public procurement scheme; future public procurements schemes should promote agroecological practices.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 45
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- [Donors should:] engage in long-term relationships with partner countries, supporting ambitious programs and policies to scale up agroecological approaches for lasting change, including genuine multi-polar engagement with public authorities and experts and existing local organizations of food providers (farmers, pastoralists, forest dwellers) and the networks they form, such as ROPPA, ESAFF, La Via Campesina, and PELUM, which have accumulated experience that could be the basis for rapid scaling-up of best practices;
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 4
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- The total contribution by fisheries to food consumption has grown substantially over the past 50 years, averaging an increase of more than 3 per cent annually. Global per capita fish consumption stands at some 18.4 kg per annum, although significant regional differences exist. In low-income food-deficit countries (excluding China), per capita fish consumption stands at some 10 kg, compared to approximately 29 kg in industrialized countries. Africa has the lowest per capita fish consumption of all continents, at 9.1 kg. Even these aggregate figures mask considerable variations between and within countries, however. Fish consumption, and dependency on fish, can be much higher in island and coastal countries, and in countries with large freshwater lakes and rivers. Furthermore, the lower average fish consumption in many developing countries notwithstanding, fish represents a higher proportion of dietary animal protein in developing countries and low-income food-deficit countries than in developed countries. Globally, fish represents 15 per cent of all animal protein consumed by people, whereas in low-income food-deficit countries the proportion is higher, at about 20 per cent, and in Asia it is higher still, at about 23 per cent. In West and Central African countries such as the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Gabon and Ghana, fish provides almost half of a person's animal protein needs. Indeed, there are at least 30 countries in which fisheries contribute more than one third of total animal protein supply, 22 of which are low-income food-deficit countries.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Párrafo
Acroecology and the right to food 2011, para. 45
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- [Donors should:] encourage South-South and North-South cooperation on the dissemination and adoption of agroecological practices;
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 9
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- Maintaining, and in some cases increasing, fish supply can contribute significantly to the realization of the right to food in many countries, especially where alternative sources of high-quality protein are scarce or unaffordable. As demand for fish increases as a result of population growth and urbanization, however, supply can be matched only by further overfishing (beyond the carrying capacity of stocks) and reliance on industrial fishing methods that have profound environmental impacts, or by other means, including the development of aquaculture, the reduction of post-harvest losses and of the diversion of fish for fishmeal and other non-food uses, or the prohibition of the use of destructive fishing gear. Although a decline in per capita fish-food supply is measurable today only in sub-Saharan Africa and is projected for the Pacific island countries and territories, a number of trends now result in serious threats to fish-food availability on a worldwide basis.
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 15
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- In comparison to some industrial fishing methods, small-scale fisheries rarely discard catches and tend to have a much lower impact on aquatic habitats. In many parts of the world, however, the increase in the number of small-scale fishers is causing stress on fish populations. A minority of small-scale fishers also uses destructive methods of fishing, such as encroachment into protected areas and the use of dynamite fishing, poisons to catch reef fish and extremely fine nets that are banned because of their impact on juvenile fish. In one report on illegal fishing in West Africa, it is claimed that the scale of illegal/unreported fishing by the artisanal fishing fleet is of a similar magnitude to that found in the industrial sector.
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 19
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- Lastly, the future of fishing is threatened by habitat loss. Mangrove forests, seagrass meadows, salt marshes and coral reefs play a vital role in the reproductive cycles of many fish and marine species. Since the 1940s, however, 35 per cent of the world's mangrove forests has been destroyed and one third of seagrass areas and 25 per cent of salt marshes have been lost. For some habitats, declines are accelerating. Before 1990, seagrass meadows were being lost at a rate of about 1 per cent annually; since 1990, this rate has increased to 7 per cent. One third of coral reefs has disappeared during the past 50 years.
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Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 26
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- The quality of working conditions in the fish-processing industry also raises concerns, although conditions have improved since developed countries imposed higher sanitation and hygiene standards. In a 2004 study, FAO showed that, for 9 of the 11 countries surveyed, fish workers were paid close to the minimum wage and often received much lower than the average per capita income for the country. In Chile, for example, the area home to most fish processing factories was also the area with the lowest per capita income levels. Moreover, high levels of seasonal and informal work exist in the processing sector, meaning that many workers are not employed on full-time contracts with basic labour benefits, such as sick pay, pension or maternity leave. In part owing to the many fish-processing firms in the sector, workers often fail to unionize and to enter into collective bargaining.
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- Non-negotiated soft law
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Economic Rights
- Water & Sanitation
- Año
- 2012
Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 33
- Paragraph text
- Aquaculture has developed rapidly over the past few decades and is now considered the fastest-growing food production system in the world. Between 1980 and 2010, global fish-food production from aquaculture expanded twelvefold and, by 2010, total production from aquaculture was measured at 79 million tons, worth $125 billion. Aquaculture may provide up to 45 per cent of all fish for direct human consumption, although that figure does not consider the large amount of unrecorded fish caught by both small-scale and industrial fisheries. There are, however, strong regional imbalances. About 62 per cent of the world's total aquaculture production comes from China, and the next five largest producers are all in Asia, which accounts for about 88 per cent of all aquaculture production.
- Condicón jurídica
- Non-negotiated soft law
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2012
Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 39
- Paragraph text
- First, the right to food requires that States respect existing access to adequate food and abstain from taking measures that result in reducing such access. To fully discharge this obligation, States should refrain from adopting any policy that affects the territories and activities of small-scale, artisanal and indigenous fishers unless their free, prior and informed consent is obtained. National and local courts may play a significant role in this regard. Courts should be empowered, in particular, to adjudicate claims from small-scale fishers whose livelihoods are threatened by measures that infringe on their ability to fish so as to provide sufficient income to ensure an adequate standard of living.
- Condicón jurídica
- Non-negotiated soft law
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personas afectadas
- Ethnic minorities
- Año
- 2012
Párrafo
Fisheries and the right to food 2012, para. 46
- Paragraph text
- The widespread failure to implement responsible fisheries management notwithstanding, the situation can be rectified. For example, there has been notable progress in creating marine protected areas, with some of the largest protected areas being declared recently, including in northern Australia and in the Indian Ocean surrounding the Chagos Islands. During the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Maldives announced that its entire territorial waters would become a marine reserve by 2017 and industrial fishing and extractive industries therein would be banned. Notwithstanding the benefits expected to accrue from marine protected areas and their relatively minor management costs (around $2 billion in total, compared to the $16 billion spent annually on subsidies in the fishing sector), marine protected areas cannot replace regulation of fishing efforts and harvesting capacity. In addition, they can negatively affect the livelihoods of small-scale fishers and local food security.
- Condicón jurídica
- Non-negotiated soft law
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2012
Párrafo