A/HRC/32/44 for privacy and obstructing their access to health care, particularly reproductive and sexual health care. Patriarchal negation of women’s autonomy in decision-making leads to violation of women’s rights to health, privacy, reproductive and sexual self-determination, physical integrity and even to life. 2. Effects of son preference 64. In patriarchal cultures, the preference for sons leads to the prioritization of boys’ and men’s health before that of women and girls, resulting in discriminatory practices such as female infanticide. This is evident in cultural customs relating to food which cause girls and women, including pregnant and nursing women, to suffer disproportionately from malnutrition. 3. Harmful gender stereotypes Objectification of women 65. The instrumentalization of women’s bodies as objects to serve sexual and other purposes leads to practices such as invasive cosmetic procedures. Unhealthy dieting, particularly among adolescent girls, can have disastrous health consequences, including eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia. 66. According to WHO, a body mass index under 16 represents severe thinness. Setting minimum standards of weight for fashion models in line with health guidance via national legislation and policies and/or regulations by modelling agencies as well as advertising campaigns embracing the diversity of female forms are good practices. The development of new models of dolls with body proportions corresponding to those of healthy women is another. Stigmatization of women’s health 67. Stigma is a deeply entrenched social and cultural phenomenon which lies at the root of many human rights violations and results in entire population groups being disadvantaged and excluded, as the Special Rapporteur on the right to water and sanitation has noted (A/HRC/30/39). Women are exposed to harmful gender stereotypes or taboos regarding natural and biological functions such as menstruation, breastfeeding and menopause. Diagnosis of mental illnesses in women is biased so as to stigmatize them and has been used as a justification for institutionalizing women unnecessarily against their will. 68. Menstruation is surrounded by stigma, resulting in the ostracism of and discrimination against women and girls. In some cultures menstruating women and girls are considered to be contaminated and impure and restrictions and interdictions during menstruation are imposed on them. Women and girls may continue to harbour internalized stigma and are embarrassed to discuss menstruation even where there are no restrictions. They live with a lack of privacy for cleaning and washing, a fear of staining and smelling and a lack of hygiene in school toilets or separate sanitation facilities. 69. Furthermore, many girls do not receive sexuality education, including knowledge about the functioning of their bodies, and hygienic materials for menstruation are either unavailable or too costly. They are forced to use improvised, unhygienic materials that may lead to leaking and infections. 70. The stigma and shame generated by stereotypes around menstruation have severe impacts on all aspects of women’s and girls’ lives, on their dignity and well-being as well as on their right to education and to employment, as they may feel obliged to stay home from school or work every month because of appropriate facilities and hygienic items are 13