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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 50
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- Certain voluntary guidelines and recommendations are also relevant in the context of human rights and pesticides. The Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security, which provide non-binding guidance for States on operationalizing the right to adequate food, promote State action in the realm of food safety and consumer protection. For example, guideline 9 calls for States to develop food safety standards on pesticide residues. Guideline 4 advocates that States should ensure adequate protection for consumers against unsafe food and encourages the development of corporate social responsibility policies for businesses.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
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- Personas afectadas
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- N.A.
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- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 68
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- Meanwhile, the activities of certain non-governmental organizations have made a significant impact on recent policies. Pesticide Action Network International, for example, has developed a list of highly hazardous pesticides based on its own definition, which has been useful in advocacy efforts. A recent civil society initiative, the International Monsanto Tribunal, held in The Hague in October 2016, dealt with human rights violations stemming from widely used hazardous pesticides. Eminent judges heard testimonies from victims and will deliver an opinion, following procedures similar to those at the International Court of Justice. While these efforts are helpful to publicize the problem and help to develop laws in the future, they cannot provide remedy to victims.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 73
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- Lack of harmonized standards also results in more toxic, and even banned, pesticides being used extensively in developing countries because they are cheaper alternatives. In many cases, highly hazardous pesticides that are not or no longer permitted for use in industrialized countries are exported to developing countries. Some pesticide companies fail to register or reregister products intended for export to developing countries, or increase exports of products that have been banned or restricted to use up existing stocks, fully aware that they would not be authorized for sale in the country where the company is based. To subject individuals of other nations to toxins known to cause major health damage or fatality is a clear human rights violation.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 102
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- International human rights law sets forth comprehensive State obligations to respect, protect and fulfil human rights. In particular, the rights to adequate food and to health provide clear protections for all people against excessive or inappropriate use of pesticides. Taking a human rights approach to pesticides guarantees the principles of universality and non-discrimination, under which human rights are guaranteed for all persons, including vulnerable groups, who disproportionately feel the burden of hazardous pesticides.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- All
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 97
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- Such resistance is particularly likely and rapid in monoculture of genetically engineered crops. As a result, genetically engineered crops may create a cycle of entrapment for farmers, with herbicide-tolerant crops eventually requiring more herbicides to fight pest resistance. Farmers using genetically engineered seed are obliged to buy the pesticides that go along with it, benefiting the pesticide industry without considering the economic burden on famers or the cost to the environment. Farmers’ right to assess technologies such as genetically engineered crops and weigh these in the light of other possible alternatives has also been ignored under the assumptions of conventional economics. Indeed some argue that the development of alternatives has been undermined by the emphasis on investment in genetically engineered technologies.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 105
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- In the words of the Director-General of FAO, we have reached a turning point in agriculture. Today’s dominant agricultural model is highly problematic, not only because of damage inflicted by pesticides, but also their effects on climate change, loss of biodiversity and inability to ensure food sovereignty. These issues are intimately interlinked and must be addressed together to ensure that the right to food is achieved to its full potential. Efforts to tackle hazardous pesticides will only be successful if they address the ecological, economic and social factors that are embedded in agricultural policies, as articulated in the Sustainable Development Goals. Political will is needed to re-evaluate and challenge the vested interests, incentives and power relations that keep industrial agrochemical-dependent farming in place. Agricultural policies, trade systems and corporate influence over public policy must all be challenged if we are to move away from pesticide-reliant industrial food systems.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Personas afectadas
- All
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 103
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- Implementing the right to adequate food and health requires proactive measures to eliminate harmful pesticides. Corporations have the responsibility to ensure that the chemicals they produce and sell do not pose threats to these rights. There continues to be a general lack of awareness of the dangers posed by certain pesticides, a condition exacerbated by industry efforts to downplay the harm being done as well as complacent Governments that often make misleading assertions that existing legislation and regulatory frameworks provide sufficient protection.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 90
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- Today, hazardous pesticides are in excessive use, inflicting damage on human health and ecosystems around the world, and their use is poised to increase in the coming years. Safer practices exist and can be developed further to minimize the impacts of such excessive, in some cases unnecessary, use of pesticides that violate a number of human rights. A rise in organic agricultural practices in many places illustrates that farming with less or without any pesticides is feasible. Studies have indicated that agroecology is capable of delivering sufficient yields to feed the entire world population and ensure that they are adequately nourished.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
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- All
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 101
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- While the present report has illustrated that there is no shortage of international and national legislation, as well as non-binding guidelines, such instruments are failing to protect humans and the environment from hazardous pesticides. These instruments suffer from implementation, enforcement and coverage gaps, and generally fail to effectively apply the precautionary principle or meaningfully alter many business practices. Existing instruments are particularly ineffective in addressing the cross-border nature of the global pesticide market, as proven by the widespread and often legally permitted practices of exporting banned highly hazardous pesticides to third countries. These gaps and inadequacies should be confronted on the basis of human rights mechanisms.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 19
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- Those living close to industrial agricultural lands and plantations may also be at grave risk of pesticide exposure. Aerial pesticide spraying is particularly dangerous, as chemicals can drift to nearby locations. Communities may be forced to reside closer to pesticide use areas owing to financial or other constraints, and the malnutrition that may accompany extreme poverty can exacerbate the adverse health effects of toxic pesticides. For example, low levels of protein, resulting in low enzyme levels, enhance vulnerability to organophosphate insecticides.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
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- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 31
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- Pesticides also present a serious threat to drinking water, particularly in agricultural areas, which often depend on groundwater. While it can take several decades before pesticides applied in fields appear in water wells, high levels of herbicides in agricultural areas have already caused health problems for some communities. For example, in the United States of America, where over 70 million pounds of atrazine are used annually, runoff into water supplies has been linked to increased risk of birth defects. While atrazine was banned in the European Union in 2004, some European countries still detect it in groundwater today.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Health
- Water & Sanitation
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 71
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- Many developing countries have shifted their agricultural policies from traditional food production for local consumption to export-oriented cash crops. Under strong pressure to maximize yields, farmers have become increasingly reliant on chemical pesticides. Yet the steep rise in the use of pesticides has not always been accompanied by necessary safeguards to control their application. Approximately 25 per cent of developing countries lack effective laws on distribution and use, while about 80 per cent lack sufficient resources to enforce existing pesticide-related laws.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
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- Personas afectadas
- All
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 72
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- Most countries maintain a threshold maximum residue level, indicating the highest level of pesticide considered to be safe for consumption. Monitoring those levels can help protect consumers and incentivize farmers to minimize the use of pesticides. However, capacity for inspection is often lacking, or adequate systems are not in place to measure or enforce maximum residue levels. Moreover, as maximum residue levels are not uniform, food products banned in one country may still be permitted entry in countries that allow higher levels. Similarly, while foods produced locally containing high pesticide residue levels may not be permitted for export owing to stricter regulations abroad, they may still be sold domestically.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
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- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 60
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- The Aarhus Convention has recently been invoked concerning confidentiality of information regarding glyphosate. In a recent case brought by non-governmental organizations to the European Court of Justice, the Court ruled that health and safety information about the pesticide must be made available to the public. The case stems from the European Commission’s refusal to grant access to such information (see A/HRC/30/40, paras. 46-47). The ruling further demonstrates the international consensus that health and safety information about pesticides and other hazardous substances should never be confidential.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 37
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- Many of the pesticides used today, accounting for approximately 60 per cent of dietary exposure, are systemic. Seeds treated with systemic pesticides are commonly used in soybean, corn and peanut production. Similarly, crops may be genetically engineered (so-called GMOs) to produce pesticides themselves. Proponents of systemic pesticides and genetically engineered crops claim that by eliminating liquid spraying, the risk of exposure to farm workers and other non-target organisms is greatly reduced. However, further studies of chronic exposure are needed to determine the extent of the impact of systemic pesticides and genetically engineered crops on human health, beneficial insects, soil ecosystems and aquatic life. For example, transgenic corn and soybean varieties have been developed that are capable of producing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) endotoxins that act as insecticides. While the use of Bt crops has led to a reduction in conventional synthetic insecticide use, controversy remains about the possible risks posed by these crops.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 93
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- The amount of pesticides needed to protect crops depends on the robustness of the farming system. If crops are cultivated in unsuitable locations, they tend to be more susceptible to pests and diseases. Over the past decades, diversity in farming systems has been greatly reduced in terms of crops and varieties grown in natural habitats. The result is a loss of ecosystem services like natural pest control through predators and a loss of soil fertility. Rather than encouraging resistance, crop breeding in industrial agriculture has focused on high-yielding varieties that respond well to chemical inputs but that are more susceptible to pests and diseases. As most seed companies are now owned by agrochemical companies, there is limited interest in developing robust varieties. In order to succeed with pesticide reduction, it is essential to reintroduce diversity into agriculture and move away from monocultures of single varieties.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 88
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- Industry has also sought to dissuade Governments from restricting pesticide use to save pollinators. In Europe, a campaign was mounted preceding the decision by the European Union in 2013 to ban neonicotinoids. The chemical industry, allegedly with support from the Government of the United Kingdom, publicly contested findings of the European Food Safety Authority about the unacceptable risk of neonicotinoids to bees. Syngenta reportedly even threatened to sue individual European Union officials involved in publishing the Authority’s report. Bayer and Syngenta are still refusing to disclose their own studies that demonstrated the harmful effects of their pesticides on honeybees at high doses.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 64
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- The Responsible Care Global Charter is also a voluntary initiative of the chemical industry that major agrochemical companies, but not all, have signed.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
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- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
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- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107r
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- [States should:] Eliminate pesticide subsidies and instead initiate pesticide taxes, import tariffs and pesticide-use fees.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 9
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- Few people are untouched by pesticide exposure. They may be exposed through food, water, air, or direct contact with pesticides or residues. However, given that most diseases are multi-causal, and bearing in mind that individuals tend to be exposed to a complex mixture of chemicals in their daily lives, establishing a direct causal link between exposure to pesticides and their effects can be a challenge for accountability and for victims seeking access to an effective remedy. Even so, persistent use of pesticides, in particular agrochemicals used in industrial farming, have been connected to a range of adverse health impacts, both at high and low exposure levels.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- All
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 10
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- Pesticide poisonings remain a serious concern, especially in developing countries, even though these nations account for only 25 per cent of pesticide usage. In some countries, pesticide poisoning even exceeds fatalities from infectious diseases. Tragic accidents involving poisoning include an incident in 1999 in Peru, where 24 schoolchildren died following the consumption of the highly toxic pesticide parathion, which had been packaged so that it was mistaken for powdered milk. Other cases include the deaths of 23 children in India in 2013 after consuming a meal contaminated with the highly hazardous pesticide monocrotophos; the poisoning of 39 preschool children in China in 2014 from consumption of food containing residues of the pesticide TETs; and the deaths of 11 children in Bangladesh in 2015 after eating fruits laced with pesticides.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 25
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- Pregnant women who are exposed to pesticides are at higher risk of miscarriage, pre-term delivery and birth defects. Studies have regularly found a cocktail of pesticides in umbilical cords and first faeces of newborns, proving prenatal exposure. Exposure to pesticides can be transferred from either parent. The most critical period for exposure for the father is three months prior to conception, while maternal exposure is most dangerous from the month before conception through the first trimester of pregnancy. Recent evidence suggests that pesticide exposure by pregnant mothers leads to higher risk of childhood leukaemia and other cancers, autism and respiratory illnesses. For example, neurotoxic pesticides can cross the placental barrier and affect the developing nervous system of the fetus, while other toxic chemicals can adversely impact its undeveloped immune system.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Infants
- Women
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 40
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- The right to adequate food provides a guarantee for food that is necessary to achieve an adequate standard of living. In addition to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, it has been codified in article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, in its general comment No. 12 (1999) on the right to adequate food, substantiates the right to adequate food, stating that it must not be construed in a narrow or restrictive sense, and declaring that adequacy denotes not just quantity but also quality. The Committee further considers that the right implies food that is free from adverse substances, and asserts that States must implement food safety requirements and protective measures to ensure that food is safe and qualitatively adequate. Under even the narrowest interpretation of article 11 and general comment No. 12, food that is contaminated by pesticides cannot be considered as adequate food.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
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- Personas afectadas
- All
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 7
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- Without or with minimal use of toxic chemicals, it is possible to produce healthier, nutrient-rich food, with higher yields in the longer term, without polluting and exhausting environmental resources. The solution requires a holistic approach to the right to adequate food that includes phasing out dangerous pesticides and enforcing an effective regulatory framework grounded on a human rights approach, coupled with a transition towards sustainable agricultural practices that take into account the challenges of resource scarcity and climate change.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
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- Personas afectadas
- All
- Año
- 2017
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 58
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- Although the Convention on Biological Diversity does not explicitly mention pesticides, it is still highly relevant in view of the negative impacts of pesticides on biodiversity. Article 6 of the Convention requires parties to create a national strategy for the conservation of biodiversity, promotes sustainable development and recognizes the need for food security. National legislation for the protection of biodiversity is increasingly being used in efforts to restrict the use of hazardous pesticides. For example, in the United States, several lawsuits are being brought under the Endangered Species Act to protect the loss of biodiversity from pesticides.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 67
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- Overall, while some of these initiatives have had some impact, the voluntary nature of soft law instruments clearly limits their effectiveness.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 82
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- One of the most catastrophic incidents involving pesticides occurred in 1984 in Bhopal, India, where approximately 45 tons of methyl isocyanate gas leaked from a Union Carbide plant as a result of negligence, immediately killing thousands of people and resulting in serious health issues and premature deaths for tens of thousands living in the vicinity. Epidemiological studies conducted soon after the accident showed significant increases in pregnancy loss, infant mortality, decreased fetal weight, chromosomal abnormalities, impaired associate learning and respiratory illnesses.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Infants
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 44
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- Moreover, articles 11 and 12 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women address women’s right to protection of health and safety, including the safeguarding of the function of reproduction, and call for special protections to be accorded to mothers before and after childbirth. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women also calls on States to take appropriate measures to provide special protection to women during pregnancy. Such obligations clearly extend to minimizing the risks of maternal exposure to pesticides.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Women
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 52
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- The responsibility of corporations is specified in the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. In addition to setting out States’ existing obligations to protect against business-related human rights abuse and ensure access to remedy for victims, the Guiding Principles specify the independent responsibility of businesses to respect human rights, that is to avoid and address adverse human rights impacts linked to their operations. While businesses are not directly bound by international human rights treaties, the Guiding Principles provide a broadly agreed normative basis to assess corporate activity.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Economic Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 48
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- While international human rights laws provide substantive protections against excessive and unsafe pesticide practices, implementation and enforcement remain major challenges. Most commonly, a human right that contemplates the negative effects of pesticides is implicit in the right to health. For example, in the African system, which does not recognize the right to food, the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights has interpreted the right to health to require Governments to take action to prevent third parties from destroying or contaminating food sources.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 57
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- A major defect in the international regime for hazardous pesticides is the lack of an effective framework to regulate different types of hazardous pesticides throughout their life cycle. A toxic pesticide is only regulated if it meets the narrow criteria of the Stockholm Convention or the Montreal Protocol, which the vast majority of hazardous pesticides do not. Thus, hundreds of hazardous pesticides are not eligible for regulation under existing treaties to control critical stages of their life cycle. Another shortcoming of the Rotterdam Convention is its consensus-based decision-making process, allowing one country to obstruct the listing of hazardous pesticides, such as paraquat. States have also delayed listing of hazardous pesticides under the Stockholm Convention, and they have the ability to accept or reject a global “ban” through opt-in and opt-out provisions.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 85
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- Unused pesticides may accumulate and deteriorate for a variety of reasons. For example, purchased or donated pesticides may be unsuitable to local conditions or quantities received may exceed demand. This can occur because of pressure from agrochemical industries and corruption, leading to more pesticides being procured than needed. Also, when pesticides are banned, managing existing stocks is a problem. According to FAO, “good practice requires regulatory authorities to allow a phase-out period when products are banned or restricted so that existing stocks can be used up before the restriction is fully applied”. This is, of course, a highly problematic suggestion.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 2
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- Despite the harms associated with excessive and unsafe pesticide practices, it is commonly argued that intensive industrial agriculture, which is heavily reliant on pesticide inputs, is necessary to increase yields to feed a growing world population, particularly in the light of negative climate change impacts and global scarcity of farmlands. Indeed, over the past 50 years, the global population has more than doubled, while available arable land has only increased by about 10 per cent. Evolving technology in pesticide manufacture, among other agricultural innovations, has certainly helped to keep agricultural production apace of unprecedented jumps in food demand. However, this has come at the expense of human health and the environment. Equally, increased food production has not succeeded in eliminating hunger worldwide. Reliance on hazardous pesticides is a short-term solution that undermines the rights to adequate food and health for present and future generations.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- All
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 13
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- Despite grave human health risks having been well established for numerous pesticides, they remain in use. Even where pesticides have been banned or restricted, the risk of contamination can persist for many decades and they may continue to accumulate in food sources. In many cases, possible health impacts have not been extensively studied before pesticides are placed on the market. This is particularly true for “inactive” ingredients that are added to enhance the effectiveness of the pesticide’s active ingredient and that may not be tested and are seldom disclosed on product labels. Moreover, the combination effects of exposure to multiple pesticides in food, water, soil and air have not been adequately studied.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 21
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- During the 1970s, the pesticide DCBP was used extensively on banana and pineapple plantations around the world. In Davao, the Philippines, where the pesticide was used in the 1980s, high levels of sterility were scientifically proven to have resulted from exposure. Other conditions, including cancer, asthma, tuberculosis and skin disease, were also detected, but a linkage was not scientifically proven. While local authorities banned aerial spraying following community protests, the Supreme Court of the Philippines reversed the ban, allegedly under pressure from banana corporations. Further, suits brought by plantation workers have been dismissed, leaving victims without compensation. Twenty years on, despite a global ban on DBCP, soils and water sources remain contaminated.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 36
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- Neonicotinoids are accused of being responsible for “colony collapse disorder” of bees worldwide. For example, heavy use of these insecticides has been blamed for the 50 per cent decline over 25 years in honeybee populations in both the United States and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. This decline threatens the very basis of agriculture, given that wild bees and managed honeybees play the greatest role in pollinating crops. According to estimates from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), of some 100 crop species (which provide 90 per cent of global food), 71 per cent are pollinated by bees. The European Union, unlike the United States, restricted the use of certain neonicotinoids in 2013.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 12
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- Of grave concern are the impacts of chronic exposure to hazardous pesticides. Pesticide exposure has been linked to cancer, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, hormone disruption, developmental disorders and sterility. They can also cause numerous neurological health effects such as memory loss, loss of coordination, reduced visual ability and reduced motor skills. Other possible effects include asthma, allergies and hypersensitivity. These symptoms are often very subtle and may not be recognized by the medical community as a clinical effect caused by pesticides. Furthermore, chronic effects of pesticides may not manifest for months or years after exposure, presenting a significant challenge for accountability and access to an effective remedy, including preventive interventions.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 24
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- Children are most vulnerable to pesticide contamination, as their organs are still developing and, owing to their smaller size, they are exposed to a higher dose per unit of body weight; the levels and activity of key enzymes that detoxify pesticides are much lower in children than in adults. Health impacts linked to childhood exposure to pesticides include impaired intellectual development, adverse behavioural effects and other developmental abnormalities. Emerging research is revealing that exposure to even low levels of pesticides, for example through wind drift or residues on food, may be very damaging to children’s health, disrupting their mental and physiological growth and possibly leading to a lifetime of diseases and disorders.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 54
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- International environmental treaties have delivered limited success in enabling a transition away from hazardous pesticides in favour of safer alternatives. A good example of a global treaty that reduces the use of a hazardous pesticide is the phase-out and control of methyl bromide under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. The Protocol enabled an assessment of ongoing uses of methyl bromide, identification of viable alternatives and a schedule for orderly transition to such alternatives.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 62
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- While several major pesticide companies have pledged to adhere to the Code through their membership of Croplife International, which states on its website that “leading companies of the plant science industry have agreed to abide by provisions in the latest revision to the Code”, civil society groups have recently made grave allegations regarding breaches of the Code by the pesticide industry. For example, a monitoring report submitted by several non-governmental organizations to the FAO Panel of Experts on Pesticide Management alleges that Bayer CropScience and Syngenta are involved in the manufacturing, distribution and sale of highly hazardous pesticides in violation of the Code. According to the report, in 2014, in Punjab, India, the companies failed to adequately inform farmers about the dangers of their pesticides or the necessary safety measures.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 70
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- Countries have established significant national laws and practices in an effort to reduce pesticide harm; however, policies and levels of protection vary significantly. For instance, there are often serious shortcomings in national registration processes prior to the sale of pesticide products. It is very difficult to assess the risk of pesticides submitted for registration, particularly as toxicity studies often do not analyse the many chronic health-related effects. Further, reviews may not take place frequently enough and regulatory authorities may be under strong pressure from the industry to prevent or reverse bans on hazardous pesticides. Without standardized, stringent regulations on the production, sale and acceptable levels of pesticide use, the burden of the negative effects of pesticides is felt by agricultural workers, children, the poor and other vulnerable communities, especially in countries that have weaker regulatory and enforcement systems.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 81
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- From the production of pesticides to their disposal, the impacts of pesticides go beyond their application to crops and exposure through food and water.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 14
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- Certain groups are at substantially higher risk of pesticide exposure, as detailed below.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 27
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- Pesticide residues are commonly found in both plant and animal food sources, resulting in significant exposure risks for consumers. Studies indicate that foods often contain multiple residues, thereby resulting in the consumption of a “cocktail” of pesticides. Although the harmful effects of pesticide mixtures are still not fully understood, it is known that in some cases, synergistic interactions can occur that lead to higher toxicity levels. High cumulative exposure of consumers to pesticides is particularly worrying, especially with lipophilic pesticides, which bind with fats and bioaccumulate in the body.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 1
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- The present report of the Special Rapporteur on the right to food was written in collaboration with the Special Rapporteur on the implications for human rights of the environmentally sound management and disposal of hazardous substances and wastes. Pesticides, which have been aggressively promoted, are a global human rights concern, and their use can have very detrimental consequences on the enjoyment of the right to food. Defined as any substance or mixture of substances of chemical and biological ingredients intended to repel, destroy or control any pest or regulate plant growth, pesticides are responsible for an estimated 200,000 acute poisoning deaths each year, 99 per cent of which occur in developing countries, where health, safety and environmental regulations are weaker and less strictly applied. While records on global pesticide use are incomplete, it is generally agreed that application rates have increased dramatically over the past few decades.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 39
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- In Europe, genetically engineered crop regulations exemplify the precautionary principle. If an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or the environment, in the absence of scientific consensus, the burden of proof falls on those taking the action or policy to demonstrate that it is not harmful. In contrast, in the United States, the biggest producer of genetically engineered crops, regulations have generally followed the concept of “substantial equivalence”, whereby a novel crop or food is compared to an existing one and if judged adequately similar, it falls under existing regulations. Considering their probable grave effects on health and the environment, there is an urgent need for holistic regulation on the basis of the precautionary principle to address the genetically engineered production process and other new technologies at the global level.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 61
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- The International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management, established by WHO and FAO, is a voluntary framework that guides Governments, the private sector, civil society and other stakeholders on best practices in managing pesticides throughout their life cycle, particularly where there is inadequate or no national legislation to regulate pesticide management. In 2013, the Code was updated to focus on the health and environmental impacts of pesticides to support healthy ecosystems and sustainable agricultural practices. It also emphasizes minimizing the use of pesticides, calls on countries to identify and, if necessary, remove highly hazardous pesticides and gives attention to vulnerable groups.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 69
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- For the preparation of the present report, some Governments provided information on laws to regulate pesticide use and on authorization and testing requirements prior to registration as well as inspection and monitoring practices, including random sampling of agricultural products for residue levels and farm inspections. Training and awareness-raising initiatives for the general public, farmers, distributors and schoolchildren were also shared, as well as precautionary measures and labelling requirements. Finally, integrated pest management strategies and examples of practices promoting organic farming were provided.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 80
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- The industry frequently uses the term “intentional misuse” to shift the blame onto the user for the avoidable impacts of hazardous pesticides. Yet clearly, the responsibility for protecting users and others throughout the pesticide life cycle and throughout the retail chain lies with the pesticide manufacturer. This is reflected, for example, in the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights on “business relationships”, which set a precedent by requiring businesses to have producer responsibility for certain products even after they are sold. It is imperative that such responsibility be extended to pesticide producers.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 38
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- The prime example of controversy around genetically engineered crops is glyphosate, the active ingredient of some herbicides, including Roundup, that allow farmers to kill weeds but not their crops. While presented as less toxic and persistent compared to traditional herbicides, there is considerable disagreement over the impact of glyphosate on the environment: studies have indicated negative impacts on biodiversity, wildlife and soil nutrient content. There are also concerns regarding human health. In 2015, WHO announced that glyphosate was a probable carcinogen.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 46
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- Appropriately, article 24 (2) (c) of the Convention makes the explicit link between food, water and the right to the highest attainable standard of health. States must combat disease and malnutrition through the provision of adequate, nutritious foods and clean drinking water, taking into consideration the dangers and risks of environmental pollution. In articles 24 (4) and 32 (1), the Convention also calls for international cooperation to help developing countries achieve this, and requires States to protect children from work that may be hazardous to their health or physical or mental development, such as work where they use or may otherwise be exposed to hazardous pesticides. It is clear that ensuring protection from pesticides falls within the parameters of the Convention.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107q
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- [States should:] Encourage the pesticide industry to develop alternative pest management approaches;
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107l
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- [States should:] Regulate corporations to respect human rights and avoid environmental damage during the entire life cycle of pesticides;
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107i
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- [States should:] Create buffer zones around plantations and farms until pesticides are phased out, to reduce pesticide exposure risk;
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 43
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- Indeed, article 12 of the International Covenant provides a right to the highest attainable level of health and obligates States to take measures to improve all aspects of environmental and industrial hygiene. In its general comment No. 14 (2000) on the right to the highest attainable standard of health, the Committee embraces the notion that the right extends to the underlying determinants of health, such as safe food, potable water, safe and healthy working conditions and a healthy environment. It also notes that the obligation to improve industrial and environmental hygiene essentially entails the right to a healthy workplace, including the prevention and reduction of exposure to harmful substances, and the minimization of the causes of health hazards inherent in the workplace. With regard to pesticide exposure, human rights law underlines the obligation on States to ensure that people live and work in safe and healthy environments and have access to safe and clean food and water. As such, exposure to pesticides, whether at work, as a bystander or via residue found on food or in water, would violate a person’s right to the highest attainable level of health.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 51
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- Businesses, whose decisions “can profoundly affect the dignity and rights of individuals and communities”, also have human rights responsibilities. Yet the State-centric nature of the human rights regime largely fails to account for the considerable role that the business sector plays in the violation of human rights. The inability of the regime to address non-State actors is particularly problematic given that the pesticide industry is dominated by a few transnational corporations that wield extraordinary power over global agrochemical research, legislative initiatives and regulatory agendas.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 87
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- Companies often contest scientific evidence of the hazards related to their products, with some even standing accused of deliberately manufacturing evidence to infuse scientific uncertainty and delay restrictions. There are also serious claims of scientists being “bought” to restate industry talking points. Other egregious practices include infiltrating federal regulatory agencies via the “revolving door”, with employees shifting between regulatory agencies and the pesticide industry. Pesticide manufacturers also cultivate strategic “public-private” partnerships that call into question their culpability or help bolster the companies’ credibility. Companies also consistently donate to educational institutions that conduct research on pesticides, and such institutions are becoming dependent on industry owing to shrinking public funding.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 94
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- In ecological farming, crops are protected from pest damage by enhancing biodiversity and encouraging the presence of natural enemies of pests. Examples include developing habitats around farms to support natural enemies and other beneficial wildlife or applying functional agrobiodiversity, using scientific strategies to increase natural enemy populations. Crop rotation and usage of cover crops also help protect the soil from various pathogens, suppress weeds and increase organic content, while more resistant crop varieties can help prevent plant disease.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 86
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- The oligopoly of the chemical industry has enormous power. Recent mergers have resulted in just three powerful corporations: Monsanto and Bayer, Dow and Dupont, and Syngenta and ChemChina. They control more than 65 per cent of global pesticide sales. Serious conflicts of interest issues arise, as they also control almost 61 per cent of commercial seed sales. The pesticide industry’s efforts to influence policymakers and regulators have obstructed reforms and paralysed global pesticide restrictions globally. When challenged, justifications for lobbying efforts include claims that companies comply with their own codes of conduct, or that they follow local laws.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 89
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- Scientists who uncover health and environmental risks to the detriment of corporate interests may face grave threats to their reputations, and even to themselves. One of the most prominent examples are the actions of Novartis (later Syngenta), producer of atrazine, which engaged in a campaign to discredit scientists whose studies suggested adverse health and environmental impacts of this pesticide. Despite their efforts, subsequent research by scientists largely validated the original findings. In 2012, Syngenta settled a class action lawsuit brought by 20 water utility companies, paying $105 million to cover the costs of atrazine removal from affected water supplies.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 99
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- Measuring the success of agroecology in comparison with industrial agricultural systems requires further research. Studies using short time frames and focusing on individual crop yields underestimate the potential long-term productivity of agroecological systems. Comparative studies are increasingly showing that diversified systems are advantageous and even more profitable when looking at total outputs, rather than specific crop yields. Aiming to build balanced and sustainable agroecosystems, agroecology is more likely to produce constant yields in the longer term owing to their greater ability to withstand climate variations and naturally resist pests.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107n
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- [States should:] Monitor corporations to ensure that labelling, safety precautions and training standards are respected;
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 6
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- Although certain multinational treaties and non-binding initiatives offer some limited protections, a comprehensive treaty that regulates highly hazardous pesticides does not exist, leaving a critical gap in the human rights protection framework.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 75
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- In addition to the legal gaps and dual standards noted above, there are other challenges derived from excessive or inaccurate use of pesticides, accidents, and dissemination of misinformation and misconceptions by producers.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 8
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- Hazardous pesticides impose substantial costs on Governments and have catastrophic impacts on the environment, human health and society as a whole, implicating a number of human rights and putting certain groups at elevated risk of rights abuses.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 28
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- Traces may remain on fruits and vegetables that are extensively treated with pesticides before they reach the consumer. The highest levels of pesticides are often found in legumes, leafy greens and fruits such as apples, strawberries and grapes. While washing and cooking produce reduces residue levels, food preparation can sometimes increase these levels. Also, many pesticides used today are systemic — taken up through the roots and distributed throughout the plant — and therefore washing will have no effect.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 91
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- The assertion promoted by the agrochemical industry that pesticides are necessary to achieve food security is not only inaccurate, but dangerously misleading. In principle, there is adequate food to feed the world; inequitable production and distribution systems present major blockages that prevent those in need from accessing it. Ironically, many of those who are food insecure are in fact subsistence farmers engaged in agricultural work, particularly in lower-income countries.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 47
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- Furthermore, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, the International Convention on the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families and other international human rights instruments all contain provisions that require States to provide adequate protection, information and remedies in the context of pesticide use.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 65
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- Conventions of the International Labour Organization on the protection of agricultural workers also provide some safeguards against dangerous pesticides. For example, article 12 of the Safety and Health in Agriculture Convention, 2001 (No. 184) is dedicated to the sound management of chemicals, while article 13 imposes regulatory obligations with regard to preventive and protective measures for the use of chemicals.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107j
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- [States should:] Organize training programmes for farmers to raise awareness of the harmful effects of hazardous pesticides and of alternative methods;
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 3
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- Pesticides cause an array of harms. Runoff from treated crops frequently pollute the surrounding ecosystem and beyond, with unpredictable ecological consequences. Furthermore, reductions in pest populations upset the complex balance between predator and prey species in the food chain, thereby destabilizing the ecosystem. Pesticides can also decrease biodiversity of soils and contribute to nitrogen fixation, which can lead to large declines in crop yields, posing problems for food security.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 5
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- Exposure to pesticides can have severe impacts on the enjoyment of human rights, in particular the right to adequate food, as well as the right to health. The right to food obligates States to implement protective measures and food safety requirements to ensure that food is safe, free from pesticides and qualitatively adequate. Furthermore, human rights standards require States to protect vulnerable groups, such as farm workers and agricultural communities, children and pregnant women from the impacts of pesticides.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 16
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- Studies in developed countries show that annual acute pesticide poisoning affects nearly 1 in every 5,000 agricultural workers. Globally, however, it is unknown what percentage of farmworkers experience acute pesticide poisoning owing to a lack of standardized reporting. Poor enforcement of labour regulations and lack of health and safety training can elevate exposure risks, while many Governments lack the infrastructure and resources to regulate and monitor pesticides.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 33
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- Pesticides contaminate and degrade soil to varying degrees. In China, recent studies released by the Government show moderate to severe contamination from pesticides and other pollutants on 26 million hectares of farmland, to the extent that farming cannot continue on approximately 20 per cent of arable land.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 95
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- Agroecological farming can help secure livelihoods for smallholder farmers and those living in poverty, including women, because there is no heavy reliance on expensive external inputs. If properly managed, biodiversity and efficient use of resources can enable smallholder farms to be more productive per hectare than large industrial farms (A/HRC/16/49).
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 78
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- Warning labels on pesticides may also be ineffective owing to the small size of print used on container labels, failure to translate instructions into local languages and low literacy rates among pesticide users. While pictograms and other creative labelling tactics may try to address some of these problems, without training, agricultural workers may still have difficulty deciphering colour codes or warning symbols.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 76
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- Pesticide companies and Governments often argue that exposure risk to pesticides is generally low if personal protective equipment is properly used. Yet in reality, compliance with recommended personal protective equipment practices is generally low, for a number of reasons.
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 106c
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- [The international community must work on a comprehensive, binding treaty to regulate hazardous pesticides throughout their life cycle, taking into account human rights principles. Such an instrument should:] Promote agroecology;
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Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107g
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- [States should:] Guarantee rigorous and regular analysis of food and beverages to determine levels of hazardous residues, including in infant formula and follow-on foods, and make such information accessible to the public;
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107b
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- [States should:] Establish systems to enable various national agencies responsible for agriculture, public health and the environment to cooperate efficiently to address the adverse impact of pesticides and to mitigate risks related to their misuse and overuse;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
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- N.A.
- Año
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107h
- Paragraph text
- [States should:] Closely monitor agricultural pesticide use and storage to minimize risks and ensure that only those with the requisite training are permitted to apply such products, and that they do so according to instructions and using appropriate protective equipment;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 32
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- Pesticides can persist in the environment for decades and pose a global threat to the entire ecological system upon which food production depends. Excessive use and misuse of pesticides result in contamination of surrounding soil and water sources, causing loss of biodiversity, destroying beneficial insect populations that act as natural enemies of pests and reducing the nutritional value of food.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
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- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 35
- Paragraph text
- While regulators are mostly concerned about health risks through pesticide residues, their effects on non-target organisms are hugely underestimated. For example, neonicotinoids, a commonly used class of systemic insecticides, are causing soil degradation and water pollution and endangering vital ecosystem services such as biological pest control. Designed to damage the central nervous system of target pests, they can also cause harm to beneficial invertebrates as well as to birds, butterflies and other wildlife.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
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- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 104
- Paragraph text
- While efforts to ban and appropriately regulate the use of pesticides are a necessary step in the right direction, the most effective, long-term method to reduce exposure to these toxic chemicals is to move away from industrial agriculture.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
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- N.A.
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 15
- Paragraph text
- Agricultural workers are routinely exposed to toxic pesticides via spray, drift or direct contact with treated crops or soil, from accidental spills or inadequate personal protective equipment. Even when following recommended safety precautions, those applying pesticides are subject to higher exposure levels. Families of agricultural workers are also vulnerable, as workers bring home pesticide residues on their skin, clothing and shoes.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
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- Families
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 22
- Paragraph text
- In various countries, agribusinesses have taken over lands belonging to indigenous and minority communities and instituted pesticide-dependent intensive agriculture. As a result, communities may be forced to live in marginal situations alongside such farms, regularly exposing them to pesticide drift.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
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- Personas afectadas
- Ethnic minorities
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 45
- Paragraph text
- The Convention on the Rights of the Child also includes specific provisions to protect children from environmental contaminants and supports childhood development. Article 6 highlights the obligation of Governments, to the maximum extent possible, to ensure that children survive and develop in a healthy manner.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 59
- Paragraph text
- The Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters is also relevant to the regulation of pesticides and derives many of its core obligations from human rights law. Article 1 sets out detailed obligations with respect to the matters covered by the Convention.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 106b
- Paragraph text
- [The international community must work on a comprehensive, binding treaty to regulate hazardous pesticides throughout their life cycle, taking into account human rights principles. Such an instrument should:] Generate policies to reduce pesticide use worldwide and develop a framework for the banning and phasing-out of highly hazardous pesticides;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
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- Governance & Rule of Law
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- N.A.
- Año
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107c
- Paragraph text
- [States should:] Establish impartial and independent risk-assessment and registration processes for pesticides, with full disclosure requirements from the producer. Such processes must be based on the precautionary principle, taking into account the hazardous effects of pesticide products on human health and the environment;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
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- N.A.
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 92
- Paragraph text
- Agroecology, considered by many as the foundation of sustainable agriculture, replaces chemicals with biology. It is the integrative study of the ecology of the entire food system, encompassing ecological, economic and social dimensions. It promotes agricultural practices that are adapted to local environments and stimulate beneficial biological interactions between different plants and species to build long-term fertility and soil health.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
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- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 106a
- Paragraph text
- [The international community must work on a comprehensive, binding treaty to regulate hazardous pesticides throughout their life cycle, taking into account human rights principles. Such an instrument should:] Aim to remove existing double standards among countries that are particularly detrimental to countries with weaker regulatory systems;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Health
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- N.A.
- Año
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 79
- Paragraph text
- The repackaging of pesticides into smaller amounts for retail is also of grave concern. Pesticides are often transferred from labelled containers that meet safety standards into unlabelled, mislabelled or inappropriate containers, such as old water bottles, to be sold alongside foodstuffs.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 98
- Paragraph text
- Replacing highly hazardous pesticides with less hazardous pesticides is necessary and overdue but not a sustainable solution, as many pesticides initially considered relatively “benign” are later found to pose very serious health and environmental risks.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
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- Health
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- N.A.
- Año
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 106d
- Paragraph text
- [The international community must work on a comprehensive, binding treaty to regulate hazardous pesticides throughout their life cycle, taking into account human rights principles. Such an instrument should:] Place strict liability on pesticide producers.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107o
- Paragraph text
- [States should:] Encourage farmers to adopt agroecological practices to enhance biodiversity and naturally suppress pests, and to adopt measures such as crop rotation, soil fertility management and crop selection appropriate for local conditions;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- N.A.
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107k
- Paragraph text
- [States should:] Take necessary measures to safeguard the public’s right to information, including enforcing requirements to indicate the type of pesticides used and level of residues on the labels of food and drink products;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107p
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- [States should:] Provide incentives for organically produced food through subsidies and financial and technical assistance, as well as by using public procurement;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 83
- Paragraph text
- The tragedy led to the worldwide development of major reforms, including the above-mentioned Responsible Care initiative. Such initiatives, however, have not succeeded in halting continued disasters related to the manufacture of pesticides worldwide.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
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- Año
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107d
- Paragraph text
- [States should:] Consider non-chemical alternatives first, and only allow chemicals to be registered where need can be demonstrated;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 20
- Paragraph text
- Examples of exposure owing to proximity to plantations include Costa Rica, where children living close to banana plantations were found to be exposed to high levels of insecticides. In India, inhabitants of the Padre village in the State of Kerala, located near cashew plantations, were found to suffer from high rates of illness and death that have been linked to the highly hazardous pesticide endosulfan; disability rates among inhabitants are reportedly 73 per cent higher than the overall rates for the entire state.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
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- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 63
- Paragraph text
- Another non-binding policy framework is the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management, adopted by the International Conference on Chemicals Management, held in Dubai in 2006. The Dubai Declaration, which is part of the Strategic Approach, explicitly states the commitment to respect human rights. The International Conference also adopted a resolution in 2015 to encourage the use of alternatives to highly hazardous pesticides without, however, any specificity or obligation to phase them out any time in the future.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
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- N.A.
- Año
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 23
- Paragraph text
- Traditional food sources of indigenous peoples are regularly found to contain high levels of pesticides. This is also true in the Arctic, because chemicals travel northward through long-range environmental transport in wind and water, bioaccumulating and biomagnifying in traditional foods such as marine mammals and fish. Indigenous peoples in the Arctic are found to have hazardous pesticides in their bodies that were never used near their communities, and suffer from above average rates of cancer and other diseases.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Ethnic minorities
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 74
- Paragraph text
- Finally, international trade deals threaten to lower standards of protection from toxic pesticides while increasing the risk of harm to the environment and to citizens. The European Parliament has expressed concern that regulatory convergence through the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership risks aligning common standards at the lowest common denominator. The Parliament further contends that the pesticides industry consistently considers protective regulations as “trade irritants” that obstruct trade.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 11
- Paragraph text
- Unfortunately, there are no reliable, global statistics on the number of people who suffer from pesticide exposure. Recently, the non-profit organization Pesticide Action Network estimated that the number of people affected annually by short- and long-term pesticide exposure ranged between 1 million and 41 million.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- All
- Año
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107a
- Paragraph text
- [States should:] Develop comprehensive national action plans that include incentives to support alternatives to hazardous pesticides, as well as initiate binding and measurable reduction targets with time limits;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
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- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 30
- Paragraph text
- Certain pesticides, such as organotins, accumulate and magnify through marine food web systems. As a result, people who depend on or consume greater amounts of seafood tend to have particularly high concentrations in their blood, causing significant health risks.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
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- N.A.
- Año
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 34
- Paragraph text
- Water contamination can be equally damaging. In Guatemala, for example, contamination of the Pasión River with the pesticide malathion, used on palm oil plantations, killed thousands of fish and affected 23 species of fish. This in turn deprived 12,000 people in 14 communities of their primary source of food and livelihood.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Water & Sanitation
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 49
- Paragraph text
- The Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights provides individuals with a grievance mechanism at the international level to claim violations of any of the rights set forth in the Covenant and to submit complaints to the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
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- All
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 55
- Paragraph text
- In addition, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants provides for global prohibitions and restrictions for a certain set of hazardous pesticides. However, while the treaty has expanded from banning or restricting the use of an initial set of 12 largely obsolete industrial chemicals and pesticides, its coverage is still limited and many highly hazardous pesticides do not fall within its scope.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 4
- Paragraph text
- While scientific research confirms the adverse effects of pesticides, proving a definitive link between exposure and human diseases or conditions, or harm to the ecosystem presents a considerable challenge. This challenge has been exacerbated by a systematic denial, fuelled by the pesticide and agroindustry, of the magnitude of the damage inflicted by these chemicals, and aggressive, unethical marketing tactics remain unchallenged.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- All
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 29
- Paragraph text
- Pesticides may also bioaccumulate in farmed animals through contaminated feed. Insecticides are often used in poultry and eggs, while milk and other dairy products may contain a range of substances through bioaccumulation and storage in the fatty tissues of the animals. This is of particular concern as cow’s milk is often a staple component of human diets, especially for children.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107f
- Paragraph text
- [States should:] Fund comprehensive scientific studies on the potential health effects of pesticides, including exposure to a mixture of chemicals as well as multiple exposures over time;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107m
- Paragraph text
- [States should:] Impose penalties on companies that fabricate evidence and disseminate misinformation on the health and environmental risks of their products;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 26
- Paragraph text
- Pesticides can also pass through breast milk. This is particularly worrying, as breast milk is the only source of food for many babies and their metabolism is not well developed to fight against hazardous chemicals. Pesticides are also found in baby formula, or in the water with which it is mixed.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Infants
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 42
- Paragraph text
- The right to adequate food embraces the notion that its realization must not interfere with the enjoyment of other human rights. Therefore, arguments suggesting that pesticides are needed to safeguard the right to food and food security clash with the right to health, in view of the myriad negative health impacts associated with certain pesticide practices.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Food & Nutrition
- Health
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- N.A.
- Año
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 66
- Paragraph text
- All major pesticide companies are members of the United Nations Global Compact, reporting yearly to the United Nations through the Global Reporting Initiative. While it is somewhat encouraging that they are willing to join corporate social responsibility schemes, such arrangements lack any enforcement or accountability measures and allow companies substantial freedom in choosing what they wish to adhere to.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 84
- Paragraph text
- Pesticide waste is also a major challenge. There are thousands of tonnes of obsolete pesticides around the world, some of which are nearly 30 years old, presenting a major health hazard, particularly in developing countries. Existing data indicate that more than 20 per cent of obsolete pesticide stockpiles consist of persistent organic pollutants, which are highly toxic and made up of organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
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- N.A.
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 77
- Paragraph text
- Personal protective equipment may be unsuitable for local working conditions, for example extreme heat and humidity, steep terrain and thick vegetation. Other factors may include pressure to work as fast as possible, lack of training on the health risks of exposure or trainings conducted in non-native languages, coupled with high turnover of workers.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 41
- Paragraph text
- In its general comment, the Committee furthermore asserts that sustainability is intrinsically linked to the notion of adequate food, implying that food must be accessible for both present and future generations. As outlined in the present report, pesticides are responsible for biodiversity loss and water and soil contamination and for negatively affecting the productivity of croplands, thereby threatening future food production.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 53
- Paragraph text
- Given the severe, negative impact of the use of hazardous pesticides on people and the planet, an international legally binding instrument to regulate, in international human rights law, the activities of transnational corporations would be important to strengthen the international accountability framework.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 96
- Paragraph text
- Despite their widespread use, chemical pesticides have not achieved reduction in crop losses in the last 40 years. This has been attributed to their indiscriminate and non-selective use, killing not only pests but also their natural enemies and insect pollinators. Efficacy of chemical pesticides is also greatly reduced owing to pesticide resistance over time.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 108
- Paragraph text
- Civil society should inform the general public about adverse impact of pesticides on human health and environmental damage, as well as organizing training programmes on agroecology.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
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- Health
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- N.A.
- Año
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 107e
- Paragraph text
- [States should:] Enact safety measures to ensure adequate protections for pregnant women, children and other groups who are particularly susceptible to pesticide exposure;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
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- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Infants
- Women
- Año
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Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 18
- Paragraph text
- Seasonal and migrant workers are also more vulnerable, as they may work temporarily at various agricultural sites, multiplying their exposure risk to pesticides. Language barriers may further prevent these workers from understanding labels and safety warnings, they may experience poor working conditions without access to adequate safety equipment and they may have difficulty accessing medical care and compensation for pesticide-related diseases. Workers may also have little control over the types of pesticides used.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Persons on the move
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 56
- Paragraph text
- Two other treaties cover a broader scope of hazardous pesticides, but only for specific international activities. The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade enables information sharing between States on the export and import of certain hazardous pesticides, while the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal regulates the international trade of hazardous pesticides as waste.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
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- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 17
- Paragraph text
- The exposure risk of children engaged in agricultural work is particularly alarming. Although little data are available, the International Labour Organization estimates that about 60 per cent of child labourers worldwide work in agriculture, and children often make up a substantial portion of the agricultural workforce in developing countries. Their increased sensitivity to the hazards of pesticides, the inadequacy of protective equipment and their lack of experience may leave them particularly exposed.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Effects of pesticides on the right to food 2017, para. 100
- Paragraph text
- Success must be calculated in terms other than economic profitability, and take into consideration the costs of pesticides on human health, the economy and the environment. Agroecology prevents direct exposure to toxic pesticides and helps improve air, soil, surface water and groundwater quality. Less energy intensive, agroecology can also help mitigate the effects of climate change by reducing emissions of greenhouse gasses and by providing carbon sinks.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2017
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 31
- Paragraph text
- FDI is playing a significant role in the "nutrition transition". The food processing industry is now the largest recipient of FDI, particularly in support of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods. FDI allows companies to become transnational by purchasing or investing in "foreign affiliates" located in other countries, which then produce food for the domestic markets. This allows the foreign-based company to bypass import tariffs and lowers transportation and production costs. By flooding markets with cheap refined grains, corn sweeteners and vegetable oil, FDI has become a driving force behind rising obesity rates in developing countries.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 62
- Paragraph text
- While nutrition support in the past was often considered charitable action, it is increasingly regarded as a result of a failure to protect an essential human right, attributed largely to a lack of sufficient nutrition governance and accountability. Applying a human rights-based approach to nutrition facilitates the implementation of procedural rights, such as participation, accountability, non-discrimination and transparency. The Second International Conference on Nutrition confirmed that embedding nutrition in a human rights agenda made issues of governance and accountability central to effective implementation.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
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- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 61
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- Several international conferences under United Nations auspices have consolidated international law by recognizing nutrition and health within the context of the human right to food. As early as 1992, the World Declaration on Nutrition of the First International Conference on Nutrition referred to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the right to food, with States committing to ensure "sustained nutritional well-being for all people". The Rome Declaration on World Food Security, adopted in 1996, reiterated "the right of everyone to have access to safe and nutritious food, consistent with the right to adequate food and the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger". This was reaffirmed at the Second International Conference on Nutrition, in 2014.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Food & Nutrition
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- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 89
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- Some countries have understood the need for more systemic changes to improve the nutritional quality of food products available on the market. Overall improvements can be achieved through dialogue with the food industry to reformulate food products by setting targets to reduce salt and fats, eliminate trans-fats and make products less energy dense, or put a cap on portion size. Good examples include schemes to collaborate with food suppliers to provide healthier ingredients for public entities serving food, or requirements that a certain percentage of food products be sourced from agroecological farms. Other initiatives focus on improving the accessibility of healthy foods at retail outlets, for example by providing incentives to set up "healthy" food enterprises in deprived neighbourhoods or placing planning restrictions on fast food outlets.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Food & Nutrition
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- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 57
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- International law instruments provide a normative and legal foundation for the human right to adequate food and nutrition. Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights recognize the right to adequate food and the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger. Dealing with global nutrition challenges through a rights-based perspective is not only desirable but also obligatory, given that nutrition is an inherent element of the right to food. In its general comment No. 12, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights interpreted the right to food as obliging every State to "ensure for everyone under its jurisdiction access to the minimum essential food which is sufficient, nutritionally adequate and safe, to ensure their freedom from hunger".
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
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- All
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 88
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- States have recognized the importance of nutrition education, making it mandatory within school curricula or providing education programmes targeting cities, workplaces and food providers. Some have initiated campaigns for healthier diets, provide nutrition advice for at-risk individuals or publish food-based dietary guidelines recommending a balanced diet. Dietary guidelines should guide not only consumer choices but also policy choices. Such initiatives should be culturally sensitive and based on scientific evidence. Brazil's revised dietary guidelines of 2014 are a good example, as they are comprehensive, take cultural dimensions into account and promote the consumption of minimally processed foods while encouraging sustainable food systems.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Education
- Food & Nutrition
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- All
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 51
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- While recognizing that companies play a big role in fighting malnutrition, there is a danger in giving corporations unprecedented access to policymaking processes, which may produce conflicts of interest at several levels unless governed properly. It has been questioned whether nutrition policies can deliver both short-term financial returns for companies and long-term social and health benefits that help to effectively tackle global malnutrition challenges. Adequate safeguards are thus needed to ensure that the private sector does not use its position as a "stakeholder" to influence public policymaking spaces on nutrition to promote commercial objectives.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- All
- N.A.
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 86
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- Raising tariffs on imported foods and drinks classified as "unhealthy" are another tool, used for example by the Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Nauru and Samoa. Others have lowered import tariffs on "healthy" foods that are not procured locally. Targeted subsidies or price discounts can also enable people on low incomes to afford healthier food options. In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, for example, low-income pregnant women and families receive vouchers to buy dairy and vegetables, and in the United States, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program gives incentives to spend on fruits and vegetables.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Families
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 20
- Paragraph text
- Finally, legal barriers may force women to choose between domestic responsibilities and outside employment. As primary caretakers for children and households, women are not always permitted to engage in paid employment, and family and personal laws may prevent a woman from making employment decisions without her husband's permission. Meanwhile, some countries featured highly discriminatory family laws that gave husbands authority over their wives in marriage including rights over property, and divorce filings. Women also often struggle with maternity protection and child care as those carrying the primary responsibility for domestic work.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Economic Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Gender
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Families
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 75
- Paragraph text
- Oxfam researchers found that adaptation projects aimed at women created under Burkina Faso's National Action Programme for Adaptation (NAPA) sought to diversity the ways that women can generate income to offset income lost by harvests damaged by climate change. In order to rectify these consequences, individuals and organizations need to be better educated on the different vulnerabilities that men and women face in disasters, and local women's organizations need to be consulted in order to understand region-specific contexts. Moreover, such attempts could have ancillary positive effects, as developing credit systems to aid families during times of famine, strengthening women's organizations that promote adaptation measures, and addressing larger issues could prevent gender inequality.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Gender
- Humanitarian
- Personas afectadas
- Families
- Men
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 2
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- The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) offers guidance on the State obligations to ensure gender equality and non-discrimination in the enjoyment of all human rights. Its article 14 on Rural Women introduces concrete measures to create an enabling environment for women to enjoy equal treatment, in particular, in relation to land and agrarian reform as well as in land resettlement schemes. The Convention also guarantees adequate nutrition for women during pregnancy and lactation (art. 12). The CEDAW provides good guidance on how violations of economic, social and cultural rights may be experienced by women in various social contexts and helps illustrate the need for an integrated approach when addressing women's economic, social and cultural rights, including the right to food.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Gender
- Personas afectadas
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 12
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- Girls and women suffer from discrimination in relation to their right to food at all stages in life. In many countries, females receive less food than their male partners, due to a lower social status. In extreme cases, a preference for male children may lead to female infanticide, including by deprivation of food. Some mothers stop breastfeeding girls prematurely in order to try and get pregnant with a male, which could increase risks of infection and other risks if impure water is used with formula. Similar discrimination applies to older women who tend to be less literate than older men, in many parts of the world; this limits women's employability, participation and voice in community development activities and makes them less likely to be able to provide for themselves.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Gender
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Girls
- Older persons
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 22
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- The Philippines also demonstrates discriminatory land distribution. While the country legally allows women to own land, the "invisibility" of women within the food production system has created structural barriers that prevent them from accessing productive resources. There is a correlation between land ownership and access to productive resources including credit, inputs, varieties of seeds and inorganic fertilizers, farming equipment, and extension services including credit. As a result, less than 3 percent of women who work in the agriculture and fisheries sectors in the Philippines benefit from support services such as credit, seeds, training, and access to technology, therefore making it almost impossible to secure a sustainable income and livelihood.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Economic Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Gender
- Personas afectadas
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 31
- Paragraph text
- Historically, efforts to increase the global food supply did not apply the intellectual property rights (IPR) regime to agricultural innovation. In most communities, farming practices, such as seed exchanges were communal activities, unrestricted by law. Furthermore, most agricultural research and development (R&D) was funded by the public sector. Today, however, industrialized agriculture mostly replaced traditional communal farming and has been inspired by competitive market for agricultural innovations to increase production. Over the past few decades, funding for agricultural R&D has shifted to private companies. The ten largest agricultural biotechnology companies invest roughly EUR1.69 billion a year on new product development, amounting to about 7.5 percent of these companies total sales revenue. To ensure that these companies recoup development costs for agricultural technologies and continue to invest in the R&D, an IPR-agricultural framework has emerged.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Economic Rights
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personas afectadas
- N.A.
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 78
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- With the increased commercialization of agriculture and highly technological improvements, farming systems are overly dependent on external inputs such as agrochemicals. Poor rural women and men farmers often spread risk by growing a wide variety of locally-adapted crops, some of which will be resistant to drought or pests, and livestock breeds that have adapted to the local agro ecological zone. Diversification, an important coping strategy adopted by poor rural households, also protects women against climate change, desertification, and other environmental stresses.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Personas afectadas
- Men
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 24
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- Inheritance is often the main avenue for women's land acquisition, yet women are still less likely to inherit land than men. Inheritance is often determined through marriage practices. Through patri-linearism, which is the most common societal system, sons, rather than daughters, inherit land from their fathers. Even where bilateral inheritance practices exist, communities may favor customary patrilineal practices. This is so in the case of the Mossi community in Burkina Faso "where despite the fact that the majority of families are Muslim, meaning that in theory daughters inherit land, this practice is not observed."
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Harmful Practices
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Personas afectadas
- Families
- Men
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 34
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- The greatest implication of the IPR regime on women and their right to food relates to seed saving, a practice that is both predominantly controlled by women and a critical component of small-scale, subsistence agriculture. Studies show that up to 90% of planting materials used in smallholder agriculture are seeds and germ plasms that are produced, selected, and saved by women. Seeds and seed banks are important for addressing the crisis of agricultural biodiversity, for ensuring sustainable livelihood solutions for food security, and for empowering women with a sustainable livelihood.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Gender
- Personas afectadas
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 69
- Paragraph text
- Insecure land tenure reduces rural women's and men's incentives to make long-term investments in soil rehabilitation and conservation, which are crucial to agricultural land management in era of climate change and resource scarcity. A reduction of agricultural productivity and more competition for productive land leave women with the more marginal and fragile lands. Tools are often reserved for men's plots of land and women may not use technological adaptation techniques. In a Sub-Saharan African county, women, have limited access to irrigation or other farm technology, such as motorized tillers that would increase productivity and offset negative impacts of climatic shocks.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Economic Rights
- Environment
- Personas afectadas
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 63
- Paragraph text
- Women remain more vulnerable than men in post-disaster situations, as their household responsibilities increase while access to resources decreases. The daily work involved in providing food, water, and fuel for households after a disaster requires intensive labour, the bulk of which is borne by women. Moreover, marketing interference with breastfeeding initiation and long-term prolongation jeopardizes women's ability to safely feed their infants and young children due to unreliable quality and quantity of safe drinking water, particularly in post-disaster situations.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Health
- Humanitarian
- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Infants
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 30
- Paragraph text
- State action can also be a source of discriminatory land distribution. A state may engage in land redistribution through various measures, including land reform, large scale appropriation, and privatization programs. At times, land distribution intended to benefit marginalized groups only benefits male heads of household. Recent land reform programs have tried to address this inequity by specifically allocating land to women, or acknowledging joint property rights. However, many countries still come up short, even when gender equality is explicitly articulated as a policy objective in such programs. This has also been true for States' response to large-scale resettlements in the face of development projects.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Economic Rights
- Gender
- Social & Cultural Rights
- Personas afectadas
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 21
- Paragraph text
- One of the most substantial factors enabling women to thrive as food producers - either for income support or subsistence - is women's ability to own and access land. Unfortunately, the exclusion of women from land ownership is a global phenomenon. The share of landholdings, owned by women in Africa, ranges from than 5% to 30%. In a recent study on the situation of women and their right to land in Central America, researchers found that in all countries, laws exist that recognize that equality of rights between men and women. Despite this, a profound gap remains between formal equality and equality in practice. This gap results in women owning less land, which tends to be of worse quality and with less judicial security. Central American women only have access to between 12% and 23% of land.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Gender
- Personas afectadas
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 85
- Paragraph text
- Climate-related financial aid is not gender equal. Almost no climate aid goes to women, even though women experience a disproportionate amount of the impacts of climate change. Accelerated efforts are needed to ensure that gender equality is mainstreamed throughout all climate change programs in all sectors, given the primary role that women play in natural resource management, farming, working, raising small livestock, and collecting fuel and water. Overcoming these challenges will require stronger partnerships between research organizations, government agencies and NGOs in order to continue to strengthen capacity of implementing organizations on gender and to build the evidence base on gender and climate change by monitoring and evaluating gender differences in participation in and outcomes of adaptation projects. A key challenge is the lack of gender experts in government climate change adaptation program.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Gender
- Personas afectadas
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 6
- Paragraph text
- Although women produce and provide food they are often the last ones to access food for themselves. Women tend to remain invisible in decision-making processes and women are rarely an individual rights-holders, rather than a community members, mothers, farmers or care givers. Indeed, gender gaps are observed in access to all productive resources, such as land, seeds, fertilizers, pest control measures and mechanical tools, credit and extension services. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), "…inequalities between men and women in their access to productive resources, services and opportunities are one of the causes of underperformance in the agriculture sector, and contribute to deficiencies in food and nutrition security, economic growth and overall development."
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
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- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 14
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- Furthermore, girls and adolescent women induced by tradition or forced into child marriage and adolescent pregnancy, suffer the consequences of a high work burden and deprivation of their child rights, including their right to adequate nutrition and education. They are required to perform heavy amounts of domestic work, and are responsible for raising children while still children themselves. Adolescent pregnancy is a typical outcome of child marriage and complications during pregnancy and childbirth are the second cause of death for 15-19 year-old girls globally.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Adolescents
- Children
- Girls
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 25
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- For married women, the death of a husband does not guarantee her ownership rights of the decedent's property. In Uganda for example, a co-ownership clause was added to the Land Act of 1998, which technically vested the land title in both the husband and wife; however, upon the death of the husband, any .children of the marriage are legally allowed to take land from the mother. Similarly, among the Hmong and Khmu, the largest ethnic groups in Lao PDR, women are primarily considered as guardians of their children's inheritance rather than heirs in their own right and additionally single women are prohibited from living independently.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Social & Cultural Rights
- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Families
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 68
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- Impacts of decreased water quality as a result of climate change are also gender differentiated. Children and pregnant women are more physically vulnerable to waterborne diseases and their role in supplying household water and performing domestic chores makes them more vulnerable to developing diseases, such as diarrhea and cholera, which thrive in degraded water. Decreased water resources may also cause women's health to suffer as a result of the increased work burden and reduced nutritional status. For instance, in Peru following the 1997-98 El Niño events, malnutrition among women was a major cause of peripartum illness.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Gender
- Health
- Water & Sanitation
- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Infants
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 70
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- Those efforts indicate that business has a responsibility to protect the right to adequate food and nutrition, especially with regard to children. Yet in practice it can be difficult to hold companies to account, especially in cross-border cases involving complex corporate structures. In this regard, home States have extraterritorial obligations to seek to prevent and address human rights abuses abroad by companies domiciled within their jurisdictions. For example, if a host country is unwilling to hold a company responsible, or even provides tax-free or other incentives, the home country of the enterprise should exercise extraterritorial responsibility.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
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- Children
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 1
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- Malnutrition, in all its forms, has become a universal challenge. Today, nearly 800 million people remain chronically undernourished, more than 2 billion suffer from micronutrient deficiencies, and another 600 million are obese. These three forms of malnutrition coexist within most countries, communities and even individuals. Ensuring the right to adequate food extends far beyond merely ensuring the minimum requirements needed for survival and includes access to food that is nutritionally adequate. Increasingly, the right to adequate nutrition is being recognized as an essential element of the right to food and the right to health.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Food & Nutrition
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- 2016
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 9
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- Traditionally, undernutrition and "hidden hunger" were considered specific to the developing world, while obesity was commonly perceived to mostly affect developed countries. It is now recognized that different forms of malnutrition coexist within most countries. Obesity rates are increasing in developing nations that are exposed to globalization while undergoing economic transition and urban migration. This is part of the global "nutrition transition", which is seeing a rise in consumption of energy-dense yet nutrient-poor foods, coupled with more sedentary lifestyles. As a consequence, many countries are now confronted with not only undernutrition but also rising rates of obesity.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 2
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- The underlying causes of malnutrition are complex and multidimensional, and access to nutritious food is often a key indicator of socioeconomic inequality. Women and children are particularly sensitive to malnutrition, while poverty, gender inequality and lack of access to adequate sanitation, health and education services are aggravating factors. Today's food systems, which are dominated by industrial production and processing, as well as trade liberalization and aggressive marketing strategies, are fostering unhealthy eating habits and creating a dependence on highly processed, nutrient-poor foods. Unequal access to and control over resources, as well as unsustainable production and consumption patterns, which lead to environmental degradation and climate change, also contribute to the malfunctioning of food systems.3
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Poverty
- Water & Sanitation
- Personas afectadas
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- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 49
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- There are concerns that the accountability system of the Rome Declaration on Nutrition is unclear and that its policies are fragmented. Owing to its multisectoral nature, as well as the long-term impact of malnutrition on human development and invisibility of some of its consequences, accountability is complex. As articulated in Sustainable Development Goal 17, ensuring effective accountability requires a clear understanding of data collection as well as systematic tracking systems at both the country and global levels. The Global Nutrition Report 2016 attempts to fill the gap by providing a data tracking system, drawing data from United Nations agencies. Although this might lead to criticism owing to its connection with the nutrition industry, it is arguably the most independent mechanism to date.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- Food & Nutrition
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- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 23
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- The impact of industrial food systems on nutrition and public health is alarming. Monocropping depends heavily on chemical inputs such as synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, while animals grown on factory farms are given growth hormones and antibiotics. The food processing industry uses preservatives, artificial colourants, additives and other chemicals in order to enhance the appearance, flavour and shelf life of food products. Ultraprocessed foods may also contain high levels of sodium, sugar, trans-fats and saturated fats, so that they are energy dense yet lacking in nutritional value.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
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- Año
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 81
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- Global sales of breast milk substitutes total $44.8 billion and are expected to rise to $70.6 billion by 2019. The International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes places restrictions on the sale of such substitutes, through prohibiting public advertising, provision of free samples or promotion in health-care facilities. It also requires all information on artificial feeding to explain the benefits of breastfeeding and the hazards associated with artificial feeding. Although some progress has been achieved, violations of the Code are widespread and only 39 countries have laws enacting all provisions.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
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- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
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- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 3
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- Recognizing the growing threat of malnutrition in all its forms and its negative impacts on economic development, universal health and efforts to reduce inequality, the international community has taken major initiatives to ensure global policy action. The World Health Organization (WHO) global targets to improve maternal, infant and young child nutrition by 2025, the Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases 2013-2020 and the political commitments made at the Second International Conference on Nutrition, in 2014, to ensure the right of everyone to safe, sufficient and nutritious food are encouraging responses. It is now also recognized that nutrition plays a crucial role in fulfilling the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
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- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Infants
- Youth
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 16
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- Breastfeeding is a powerful influence on child survival and development and prevention of child malnutrition. It provides optimal nutrition for young infants, reducing the incidence and severity of infectious diseases and contributing to obesity prevention. Breastfed babies are protected from illnesses through the mother's antibodies, while those who are not are exposed to increased chances of malnutrition, non-communicable diseases and suboptimal cognitive development. In addition, infant formula and other breast milk substitutes can cause poor growth or illness if water quality and hygiene standards are not met.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Infants
- Año
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Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 22
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- Food systems include production, processing, transport and consumption of food and are shaped by political, environmental, cultural, and socioeconomic factors. The industrial food system currently dominates the world. It focuses on increasing food production and maximizing efficiency at the lowest possible economic cost and relies on industrialized agriculture, including monocropping and factory farming, industrial food processing and mass distribution and marketing. Reflecting their affordability, availability and aggressive marketing strategies, industrialized food products constitute a very significant portion of the world's food sales.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 42
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- The Conference is considered a landmark event that brought together the global community to discuss nutrition, acknowledging malnutrition in all its forms. Its outcome document, the Rome Declaration on Nutrition, pledges 10 commitments to action, recognizing the importance of a life-cycle approach to preventing malnutrition, as well as empowering people to make informed food choices. States committed to increasing investment in nutrition and moving towards sustainable food systems. The Framework for Action adopted at the Conference recognizes that effective and coherent nutrition policies require adequate financing and investment, political commitment, systematic public monitoring and accountability processes. It also calls for collaboration across all systems, including food, health, trade, investment, education, social protection, water and sanitation and hygiene.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 55
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- Increasingly, philanthropic foundations are investing in global nutrition initiatives. While donations are difficult to track, such private institutions are generally larger than many Governments and have the ability to influence nutrition policies without the concomitant obligations to ensure respect for human rights. Recognizing the financial constraints faced by many countries, it is imperative to establish a monitoring and accountability system to ensure that private foundations operate within the human rights system, rather than fulfilling this responsibility on a voluntary basis.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 90
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- While the above-mentioned examples are positive indications, national policies are often fragmented, and it is crucial to go further to encourage States to implement comprehensive plans to combat malnutrition in all its forms.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 30
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- Trade liberalization has also allowed transnational corporations to gain influence on the global food supply chain and, in turn, on food systems. They have obtained control over agricultural production, processing, retailing, advertising and food imports and exports. By investing in technology used in the processed food industry, for example agrochemicals and hybrid seeds, extraction technology used in food processing, and additives to increase the shelf life of food products, large-scale food production achieves substantially lower costs while increasing profit margins.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 47
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- Despite the potential success of the Goals, nutrition is mentioned in only 1 of the 169 targets, and overweight and obesity are not mentioned. More importantly, whether the Sustainable Development Goal targets have the innovation necessary to ensure a successful shift towards sustainable food systems and provide the framework for global governance of agriculture, food, nutrition and health seems doubtful. In addition, some targets lack the focus necessary to enable effective implementation, or they contribute to several Goals, thereby creating possible conflicts. Action to meet one target could have unintended consequences on others if they are pursued separately. Moreover, the monitoring mechanism for the Goals based on voluntary national reporting and review mechanisms, through the high-level political forum on sustainable development of the General Assembly, may not be effective enough to reach agreed targets. Finally, a major shortcoming is the fact that the human right to adequate food is not specifically articulated in the Goals.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 56
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- The Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition is one of the leading private networks focusing on malnutrition reduction, mainly through fortification, supported largely by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Several allegations of conflict of interest have been made against the Alliance. In particular, organizations working to address infant malnutrition questioned whether its work was motivated primarily by efforts to open new markets for its members. An effective, independent evaluation mechanism is needed for balancing private sector involvement in nutrition policies.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 17
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- WHO recommends breastfeeding within one hour of birth and exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life. Nutritionally adequate and safe complementary foods should be introduced at 6 months of age, together with continued breastfeeding up to 2 years of age or beyond. Yet only about 36 per cent of infants between 0 and 6 months old are exclusively breastfed. In high-income countries, fewer than one in five infants are breastfed for 12 months, and only two out of three children between 6 months and 2 years of age receive breast milk in low- and middle-income countries. These rates have not improved in two decades. In addition, few children receive nutritionally adequate and safe complementary foods. A total of 823,000 children's lives could be saved yearly if all children between 0 and 23 months were optimally breastfed. One of the major obstacles to breastfeeding is the misleading marketing by baby food companies of breast milk substitutes and the lack of corporate accountability for the adverse consequences of such abuses.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 35
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- Nutrition policies should be multidimensional and avoid promoting isolated interventions to fight malnutrition, including "medicalized" and product-based approaches focusing on ready-to-use therapeutic foods. Such measures have been criticized as unsustainable "technical" solutions to social problems. Fortified foods are often too expensive for or unavailable to those most affected by micronutrient deficiencies. Such initiatives can also undermine dietary diversity, have a negative impact on healthy eating practices and adversely affect small-scale local producers by moving away from culturally appropriate, affordable and sustainable food sources. Excessive reliance on product-based solutions, for example nutrient pills and other methods of food fortification, also has adverse health implications, especially if they are highly processed. Even biofortification, which seeks to deliver naturally fortified foods, may turn out to be another "technical fix" for the problem of hidden hunger.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 53
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- Limited guidelines exist on how to manage such partnerships. They may be useful where public sector solutions are not available or effective, and the private sector may have an important role to play in driving innovation to reduce malnutrition. To avoid conflicts of interest, it is important to assess whether the private sector's activities are compatible with the goal of reducing malnutrition. Actions motivated by profit seeking alone should be discouraged. A memorandum of understanding or legal contract that lays out specifies objectives to avoid and resolve conflict of interest and ensure effective and transparent monitoring can help to manage such partnerships.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 64
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- Children and pregnant and lactating women enjoy even further protections. The Convention on the Rights of the Child confirms that, to ensure the full implementation of a child's right to enjoy the highest attainable standard of health, States must take appropriate measures to combat disease and malnutrition through, inter alia, the provision of "adequate nutritious foods" (art. 24 (2) (c)) and that in case of need they must provide material assistance and support programmes, including with regard to nutrition (art. 27 (3)). The Convention also calls for the protection and promotion of exclusive breastfeeding for infants up to 6 months of age, and for breastfeeding to continue alongside appropriate complementary foods preferably until 2 years of age.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 94
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- The United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition, proclaimed in April 2016, could be an effective vehicle to strengthen implementation of existing nutrition commitments. However, the United Nations and the international community need to address existing flaws within the global governance system, especially the weakness of implementation and accountability. The General Assembly has called upon the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations to lead the implementation of the Decade, recommending that multi-stakeholder platforms such as the Committee on World Food Security and the Standing Committee on Nutrition be entrusted with coordinating oversight. Recognizing legitimate concerns about the influence of private interests on nutrition policymaking, a participatory process is particularly important. This makes it imperative to protect open spaces to ensure that policy formulation is consistent with the public good, which may require the empowerment of civil society.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 58
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- The clear inclusion of a nutrition dimension to the right to food confirms the latter's interconnection with the right to health. In fact, nutrition is considered as the vital link between the right to health and the right to food and ensures that the human rights framework promotes both rights. In its general comment No. 14, the Committee on Economic, Cultural and Social Rights affirmed that the right to health placed a core obligation on States to "ensure access to the minimum essential food which is nutritionally adequate and safe, to ensure freedom from hunger to everyone". This implies that if nutritious food is not readily available, accessible or affordable, the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health cannot be met.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 80
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- Not enough agricultural research and development efforts have focused on options that meet women's specific needs and situations related to childcare, food preparation, and the collection of domestic water and energy resources. New research based on gender-disaggregated data shed light on gender differences in perceptions on climate change and the ability to adopt practices and technologies needed to increase resilience. These data also show that men and women have different preferences, needs, and priorities for the ways in which they respond to climate change. There is also a greater need for using gender-disaggregated data to inform evidence-based policy making as well as integrating a gender perspective into research on climate change and mitigation and adaptation strategies.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 10
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- Social segregation based on gender, when combined with other forms of discrimination based on religion, race, ethnicity, class and caste, disadvantages women even further.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 76
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- In all adaptation projects women should be granted access to the same level of technology and financing as men. This will help women change agricultural practices as well as preserve livelihoods during times of drought. Addressing issues of resource management and land ownership will also improve women's chances against climate change. Ultimately, communities must take a "bottom-up" approach in order to accurately understand local customs and to incorporate local knowledge; applying a model that relies upon opinions from international institutions or outside groups will not be as effective.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 77
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- Agro-ecology is a reaction against the agricultural policies promoted by the Green Revolution that have replaced traditional farming with GMO seeds, extreme use of fertilization, and intensive resource use. It offers an important means through which women farmers can adapt to climate change, recognizes women as legitimate actors, and opens spaces for women to become more autonomous and empowered at productive, reproductive, and community levels. At the same time, agro-ecology is a proven alternative farming method to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 8
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- Considering the vital importance of women to the global food systems, as well as, to family budgets, this report will first outline the persistent discrimination and structural barriers that women and girls face in several fields. Despite the recognition of the vital role of women in international human rights law and policies, the situation of women with regards to implementation of right to food remains critical. This report will deal with the cultural, legal, economic, and ecological barriers that hinder the equal implementation of the right to food. It further addresses the positive role that women can play in developing solution to the posed challenges such as eliminating hunger, maintaining food security and preserving natural resources. The report particularly focuses on the importance of gender-sensitive policies in the context of climate change, and the particular vulnerability of rural women.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 15
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- The reasons behind the failure to women's access to adequate food can arguably be linked to two structural disconnects which exist at the crossroads between Women's Rights and the Right to Food. The first disconnect refers to the failure in international law to fully endow women with their right to food. In the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) and the ICESCR, the right to food is accorded to himself and his family. Although the ICESCR General Comment 12 and other documents have underscored the non-discriminatory intention of the right to food, the archaic language of patriarchy taints the UDHR and treaty language. Concurrently the economic and social rights of the ICESCR are generally reviewed in CEDAW, but not the right to food, which is indirectly touched upon only through a call for rural women. In CEDAW, as in the Convention of the Rights of Child (CRC), food access and adequacy for adult women and teenage girls are addressed only on behalf of pregnant and breastfeeding females .
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 71
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- A gendered approach to climate change adaptation and mitigation is necessary to combat the vulnerabilities women face because of existing social, economic and political inequalities. Mitigation activities aim to decrease greenhouse gas emissions through support for technology development and capacity building. These activities also provide important opportunities to improve women's health and livelihoods by creating new opportunities for women particularly in the renewable energy sector. Development programs that support the distribution of clean cook-stoves have had a significant impact on reducing emissions and limiting premature deaths and illness linked to indoor air pollution, particularly benefiting women and children.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 74
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- Adaptation strategies are adjustments made to ecological, social or economic systems in response to actual or expected effects or impacts of climate change. In general, adaptation policies and measures need to be gender sensitive, taking into account women's lack of control and access to land, resources, transportation, information, technology, and ultimately decision-making. Data from several countries suggest that men and women have different needs, priorities, and preferences for adaptation and, indeed, men and women tend to report engaging in different adaptation strategies. Women tend to adopt certain practices more readily than men, including cover cropping with legumes to increase soil fertility and improve food security and feed management practices for livestock.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 59
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- The successful implementation of climate change policies and projects requires an understanding of the gender-based roles and relationships vis-à-vis natural resources, as well as the gender-differentiated impacts of climate change. The Beijing Declaration in 1995 was the first international declaration to recognize the links between gender equality and climate change. It took a long time for international climate change policy makers to address gender dimensions of climate change. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process referred to gender considerations only in "Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation" (REDD+) and response measures, with the latter only referring to women as a "vulnerable group". In recent years, progress has been made in integrating gender equality in the COP decisions. It remains uncertain how the gender perspective to climate change policies will be acknowledged in the upcoming document of the climate change agreement.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 66
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- In rural areas, women and girls spend the majority of their time engaged in subsistence farming and in the collection of water and fuel. As a result of flooding, droughts, fires and mudslides, these tasks become more difficult. Water shortages and depletion of forests require women and girls to walk longer distances to collect water and wood. In Senegal and Mozambique, women spend 17.5 and 15.3 hours respectively each week collecting water. In Nepal, girls spend an average of five hours per week on this task. In rural Africa and India, 30 percent of women's daily energy intake is spent in carrying water. Depletion of land and water resources may place additional burdens on women's labour and health as they struggle to make their livelihoods in a changing environment.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 88
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- Over the last few decades, women have broadened and deepened their involvement in agricultural production as they increasingly shoulder the responsibility for household survival and respond to economic opportunities in commercial agriculture. This phenomenon brought the argument about gender gap in agriculture, where women's productivity as farmers falls behind that of men, and where women remains less food secure, despite their dominant role is food production. This gender gap occurs because of cultural, legal, and economic barriers, so and eliminating this discrepancy requires a holistic understanding that responds to structural discrimination and failed implementation of attempted solutions. For instance, while international development has focused on providing technical training and access to new agricultural technologies for women, there has been a lack of focus on providing women with land rights and sufficient financial resources. Moreover, women's responsibility in relation to household food security, simply feeding family and community is totally excluded from such technical and economistic solution.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 87
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- The human rights perspective should accommodate a gender analysis for food security, and allows focus on woman as an individual, rather than on the nation, the community, or the household. At the same time, gender analysis should include other social categories such as age, social status, race, ethnicity, and class. Adoption of the right to food approach together with gender base analysis would reveal discrimination and inequality of women in food production cycles and at household level in a more appropriate manner. A person's ability to acquire nutritious food is closely related to other aspects of the capabilities and rights. For women and girls, discriminatory laws, social norms, values and practices further affect access to food and food security. Moreover, unequal power relations between genders, penetrate both the private and the public sphere, and constrain the decision-making power of women and girls. The discrimination is reinforced when gender inequality is compounded with other forms of exclusion related to income, ethnicity or race.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 45
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- Even without formal prohibitions to market access, structural barriers may challenge women's ability to produce in sufficient volumes, establish relationships with buyers, or market their goods. Women may also not have sufficient time to engage in market activities as a result of their unpaid work burdens. As a result, women are particularly disadvantaged by "free" markets. Female farm-workers are often excluded from the benefits of the contract farming arrangements central to the agro-industrial model of contemporary agriculture. Men largely control the contract arrangements while women perform much of the waged agricultural labour.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 51
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- However, the broad category of female-headed households should be differentiated further, as households face different socio-economic circumstances, resulting in different outcomes regarding their livelihoods and food and nutrition security. Research among South African farmworkers revealed that certain female-headed households, although having less access to earned income compared to male-headed households, achieved greater food and nutrition security than comparable households with male headship. This was due to women having better access to social grants, remittances, and income obtained through informal work. This highlights the crucial role of women's access to resources and power relations within households for greater food and nutrition security.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 62
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- One area of concern is disaster management because climate change is likely to impact the number and severity of extreme weather events. Researches show that in societies where men and women should be impacted indiscriminately in disasters women and girls, as a result of gender based inequalities, are up to 14 times more likely to die in the event of a disaster. This is especially true of elderly women, those with disabilities, pregnant and nursing women, and those with small children, who may have lack of, or limited mobility and resources, and therefore remain most at risk in cases of emergency.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 43
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- Agro-biotechnology is also a large part of the corporate model of agriculture, and it poses specific challenges for women. Women generally lack necessary training in technology and experience "time poverty" that prevents them from accessing relevant education. As a result, women are less likely to understand the negative impacts of technological developments and the effective and safe use of technology. Women also have limited participation in the development of agro-biotechnology, so such technologies often fail to account for needs of women.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 28
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- These are positive developments but unfortunately, formal laws have not sufficiently secured property rights of women, largely due to the prevalence of customary laws. In many African countries the existence of "dual legal systems" reflecting both customary laws and common law tends to complicate land ownership. In Asia, many countries retain personal or religious law that prevails over formal laws in practice, which effectively prevent women from owning land. Additionally in many cases, formal laws and state institutions have limited reach beyond urban centers.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 76
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- Nutrition labels allow people to make informed decisions on their food options and incentivizes food manufacturers to reformulate their products to target health-conscious consumers. Many countries have mandatory nutrient lists on pre-packaged foods, and some have gone further to implement creative schemes to alert consumers about foods that undermine their nutritional welfare. For example, Australia has adopted a voluntary "health star rating" that rates foods from least to most healthy; Chile has food labels with a "stop sign" warning message when calorie, saturated fat, sugar or sodium limits have been exceeded; and Ecuador requires packaged foods to carry a "traffic light" label indicating fats, sugar and salt by colour. Denmark, Iceland, Norway and Sweden use a voluntary keyhole-shaped logo to flag products containing less fat, salt and sugar, while Finland uses a heart-shaped symbol to indicate which products are better options in terms of sodium content.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 12
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- The first 1,000 days of a child's life determines a person's physical and intellectual development. Children receiving appropriate nutrition during this window are reportedly 10 times more likely to overcome life-threatening childhood diseases and likely to complete 4.6 additional schooling levels and to raise healthier children themselves. The stages of a child's development are cumulative, and inadequate nutrition at an early stage can have lasting negative impacts, setting the child on a higher trajectory of risk of malnutrition throughout life. The Committee on the Rights of the Child, in its general comment No. 15, noted that understanding the life course was essential in order to appreciate how health problems in childhood affected public health in general.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 20
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- Women are responsible for much of the food cultivation and preparation of family meals, but they disproportionately lack access to adequate food and are more vulnerable to malnutrition. In its general recommendation No. 34, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women noted that rural women were among those most exposed to malnutrition and hunger. Patriarchal norms contribute to gender inequality, with women facing systemic discrimination in accessing land and natural resources, decision-making, education and health-care services and experiencing increased vulnerability to violations of their sexual and reproductive rights. Such factors impede their ability to provide adequately nutritious foods for themselves and their families, leading to intergenerational cycles of malnutrition.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 69
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- In the technical guidance on the application of a human rights-based approach to the implementation of policies and programmes to reduce and eliminate preventable mortality and morbidity of children under 5 years of age (A/HRC/27/31) Member States are urged to regulate private actors over which they exercise control, including producers and marketers of breast milk substitutes and other relevant companies (para. 70 (g)). The Committee on the Rights of the Child, in its general comment No. 15, also calls upon private companies to comply with the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes and relevant World Health Assembly resolutions. In its most recent resolution on ending inappropriate promotion of foods for infants and young children, adopted in May 2016, the World Health Assembly called upon manufacturers and distributors of foods for infants and young children to end all forms of inappropriate promotion.
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- Governance & Rule of Law
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 79
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- Advertisements influence people's food preferences and habits. Recognizing that children are especially exposed to aggressive marketing and promotion strategies by food and beverage companies, some States prohibit media advertising to children for certain "restricted" food and drink products. In Chile, for example, where children form more than 20 per cent of the audience, mandatory regulations restrict advertising to children under 14, while Taiwan Province of China bans the advertising of restricted foods on channels dedicated to children, levying fines for violations of its regulations. Brazil imposes strict regulations, prohibiting any "abusive publicity" and strategies that appeal directly to children and adolescents. In practice, however, there seem to be many difficulties in implementing such restrictions.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- Equality & Inclusion
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 6
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- Malnutrition includes undernutrition, micronutrient deficiency and conditions associated with excess intake and nutritional imbalance. Undernutrition is a consequence of consuming too few essential nutrients, caused by either insufficient food intake or repeated infectious diseases. The most basic kind of undernutrition is protein energy malnutrition, which in its acute form leads to wasting. Identifying wasting in children is crucial because the condition is reversible, if appropriately addressed. In its chronic form, it is caused by sustained poor dietary intake or repeated infections during the first 1,000 days of a child's life and can lead to stunting. Stunting is irreversible and leads to shortness in stature, immediate and long-term morbidity and mortality and problems with cognitive functioning.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 18
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- In the Rome Declaration on Nutrition, adopted in 2014, States recognized that the root causes of malnutrition were complex and multidimensional. They include social, economic, political and cultural determinants. Poverty, social exclusion, gender inequality, low socioeconomic status and lack of control over productive resources, for example land-grabbing and seed patenting, are all major contributors to malnutrition. Similarly, malnutrition is aggravated by poor sanitation and the absence of safe drinking water and adequate housing, as well as a lack of education, health and social protection services.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 26
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- Increased meat, sodium, sugar and fat consumption are causing diets to become less healthy. High sodium consumption raises blood pressure, raising the risks of heart disease and strokes, while excessive sugar consumption is associated with weight gain. While meat and other livestock products provide high-value protein and are sources of micronutrients, their overconsumption leads to excessive intakes of fat and sodium. As early as 2002, WHO recommended moderating processed meat consumption to reduce the risk of colorectal cancer and classified processed meat as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1). The Global Burden of Disease project estimates that approximately 34,000 cancer deaths per year worldwide are attributable to diets high in processed meat.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 34
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- Marketing strategies are particularly harmful when they target untapped markets in developing nations, a spillover from the "saturation" of markets in developed countries. The effect of introducing fast food on the diet quality of poorer populations is especially dangerous when there is a lack of knowledge or education and where individuals are vulnerable to manipulative marketing practices. If left uncontrolled, undernutrition in lower-income countries will be rapidly eclipsed by obesity and non-communicable diseases, as is already the case in China, India and many middle-income countries.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 19
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- Poverty and inequality are drivers of obesity and micronutrient deficiency, in addition to undernutrition. Low-income populations are particularly vulnerable to obesity. Processed foods tend to be highly accessible and relatively cheap and can be stored for long periods without spoiling. In the United States of America for instance, low-income neighbourhoods often lack food retailers that sell fruits, vegetables, whole grains and alternative low-fat options. Unable to afford healthier food options, individuals may become overreliant on poor-quality foods, essentially being forced to choose between economic viability and nutrition and exposed to "double malnutrition".
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 80
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- To encourage increased consumption of healthy foods by children, some countries have implemented vegetable and fruit programmes at schools, imposed mandatory prohibitions on serving foods classified as unhealthy, and banned vending machines. Poland recently banned the sale of foods high in sugar, salt and fat in all schools, and Mexico introduced a similar ban in 2010. Other initiatives include implementing "green food zones" prohibiting the sale of fast food within the immediate vicinity of schools and banning advertising and promotion of foods that do not meet certain nutrition standards.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- Equality & Inclusion
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 4
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- Yet the world is not on track to reach these global targets. It is time to translate commitment into action. The United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition, proclaimed in April 2016, presents a unique opportunity to ensure a coherent, inclusive and transparent response to malnutrition, embedded within human rights. Applying a human rights-based approach to nutrition policy acknowledges rights holders and the duty of Governments to refrain from actions that negatively affect the right to nutrition and to implement strategies that tackle malnutrition's root causes. Recognizing that private sector involvement in responding to malnutrition cannot be ignored, it is necessary to establish suitable safeguards to prevent negative corporate influences on nutrition governance. States should be supported in their efforts to regulate and hold the food industry accountable, to encourage behavioural changes in the population and to improve access to nutritious food through social protection. Finally, it is crucial to recognize that malnutrition will continue to persist, unless a coordinated effort is made to shift from unsustainable industrial food systems to ones that are "nutrition sensitive".
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 96
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- While certain States have taken encouraging steps, most national systems to combat malnutrition are fragmented and lack effective action, evaluation and accountability mechanisms. It is imperative that responses move away from isolated interventions and "medicalized" approaches to fighting malnutrition. In line with their obligations under the international human rights system, States must acknowledge the underlying causes of malnutrition and develop multisectoral approaches to coordinate nutrition policies with health, housing, water and sanitation, social protection, poverty and inequality reduction initiatives. Moreover, it must be recognized that, to effectively combat malnutrition, women's rights should be at the forefront.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- Food & Nutrition
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 59
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- The Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security also recognize that State obligations to ensure the right to food include responsibilities towards ensuring standards of nutrition and health. In the Guidelines, it is noted that "States should take measures to maintain, adapt or strengthen dietary diversity and healthy eating habits and food preparation, as well as feeding patterns, including breastfeeding, while ensuring that changes in availability and access to food supply do not negatively affect dietary composition and intake".
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 9
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- Women are disadvantaged on several social levels, largely due to the influence of patriarchal systems. All societies practice some form of social structuring based on gender roles and the impact of this has major ramifications in developing countries where resources are especially scarce. Social stratification affects women's right to produce food by preventing them from accessing the inputs of production. This can occur either as a result of discriminatory legal barriers or from the way the market forces operate, putting women in a disadvantaged position. Women are also affected by these patriarchal structures that facilitate unequal treatment in the labour market. Even where women's equal legal rights exist, these often fail to supersede structural barriers.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- Equality & Inclusion
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Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 99f
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- [With a view to respecting, protecting and fulfilling the right to adequate food and nutrition, the Special Rapporteur recommends that:] International trade and investment agreements be re-evaluated to ensure that they do not undermine health and nutrition policies. For example, food taxes, tariffs and other market restrictions or incentives that justifiably form part of national nutrition policies should be exempt from World Trade Organization rules and should not lead to penalties for violating trade agreements;
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 79
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- In order for adaptation and mitigation strategies to effectively take gender into account, they must provide women with the opportunity to be active members of the planning and implementation of such policies. Helping women participate fully in the process of adaptation will require concerted effort by decision-makers to overcome the multiple barriers of control over resources, lack of access to information, and socio-cultural constraints. Local adaptation policies need to be designed by both women and men in order to build upon existing knowledge and grant women access to the rights, resources and opportunities necessary to surviving climate change in the years to come.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
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- Men
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 89
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- Closing the gender gap in agriculture requires development of gender sensitive policies. Ensuring land rights and reinforcing the rights of girls and women to education, social protection and increasing women's participation in decision making in a meaningful manner is critical for enhancing women's vital role in advancing agricultural development and food security. Increasing women's access to and control over assets has been shown to have positive effects on important human development outcomes including household food security, child nutrition, education, and women's own wellbeing and status within the home and community. Moreover, providing women with essential tools and resources does not require a major investment of resources but can have a huge impact on the formal economy. Respecting, protecting and fulfilling women's rights will inevitably fix broader problems in food systems in general and can help communities achieve improved development outcomes.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- Food & Nutrition
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Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 99a
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- [With a view to respecting, protecting and fulfilling the right to adequate food and nutrition, the Special Rapporteur recommends that:] Member States embrace the United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition as an opportunity to achieve ambitious nutrition targets and ensuring the right of every individual to adequate food and nutrition, especially the people who most need it. To this end, United Nations agencies and programmes should establish coordinated, effective monitoring and accountability mechanisms to implement the multitude of existing nutrition targets in ways that are coherent, harmonized, mutually reinforcing and overcoming gaps, together with clear timelines, funding and indicators to assess progress;
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 53
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- Women earn an average of 24 percent less than men, resulting in between a 31 and 75 percent lifetime reduction in income and they are also less likely to receive a pension. International Labour Organization (ILO) data shows that occupational segregation is significant, with women over-represented in clerical and support positions and in service and sales roles compared to managerial occupations, skilled work in agriculture and fisheries and in craft and trade occupations. Unfortunately, this occupational segregation does not reduce with new economic development. Instead, occupational segregation results in a lower quality of work accessible to women, as well as a "stubbornly persistent" wage gap outside of the agricultural sector, which affects women's income and their ability to purchase food.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 60
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- The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development also acknowledges the critical importance of advancing gender equality and empowering women and girls to realize sustainable development. Many of the climate-related SDGs include gender-specific targets, including those related to ownership and control over land and access to new technology (SDG1), women small-scale food producers (SDG2), and water and sanitation (SDG6). These goals provide a mandate for advancing gender equality and women's empowerment across all areas of climate change action.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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- Environment
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 93
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- To successfully combat universal malnutrition in all its forms, including the negative effects of the "nutrition transition", the first step is recognizing nutrition as an essential component of the human right to adequate food, reinforced by monitoring, accountability and transparency mechanisms.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 78
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- Although WHO has recommended that the private sector adopt evidence-based "responsible marketing", and despite some positive initiatives as described above, ensuring informative labelling is still an uphill battle for nutrition and health advocates.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 11
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- Women who are lactating and pregnant require an even more nutrient-rich diet. To ensure the health of the fetus, a diet consisting of at least 20 per cent protein and higher levels of iron, folate and calcium is essential. Malnourished mothers are more likely to give birth to underweight babies, who in turn are 20 per cent more likely to die before the age of 5. Diets that consist of less than 6 per cent protein in utero have been linked with many deficits, including decreased brain weight, obesity and impaired brain communication.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Special Procedures' report
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 84
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- Taxes on poor nutritional foods can also deter consumers. Norway has taxed sugar, chocolate and sugary drinks since 1981, and many countries have followed suit. Denmark taxes food containing saturated fat, Hungary imposes a "public health tax" on the salt, sugar and caffeine content of various categories of ready-to-eat foods, and in the United States, 33 states have issued some form of food tax. In the Navajo Nation for instance, a tax is levied on food items with minimal to no nutritional value.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 99b
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- [With a view to respecting, protecting and fulfilling the right to adequate food and nutrition, the Special Rapporteur recommends that:] The Committee on World Food Security, as recommended by the General Assembly, ensure the participation of all partners during the Decade, in particular rights holders and representatives of vulnerable groups. Affirmative measures should be adopted to ensure a "level playing field" allowing civil society to play active roles in discussions and negotiations;
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 1
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- Since the 1945 - UN Charter, equality between men and women has been among the most fundamental guarantees of human rights. The same principles of equality and non-discrimination are at the core of the two Covenants, namely on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Both Covenants in their respective article 3, oblige States Parties to ensure the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of their civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 74
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- In its general comment No. 12, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights views the right to adequate food to imply food "free from adverse substances" (para. 8), which "sets requirements for food safety and for a range of protective measures by both public and private means … at different stages throughout the food chain" (para. 10). Considering the adverse health impacts, "food safety" should be interpreted to include the nutritional value of food products.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 66
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- Article 12 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women obliges States to ensure appropriate services during pregnancy and lactation. Unfortunately, it fails to protect a woman's individual right to adequate food and nutrition beyond the parameters of pregnancy and breastfeeding. Considering their increased sensitivity to malnutrition, it is vitally important to ensure this right.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 14
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- At the same time, there were 41 million overweight children under the age of 5. If this trend continues, 70 million infants and young children will be overweight or obese by 2025. Economic and cultural factors contribute to childhood obesity. Energy-dense foods are often more affordable and aggressively marketed towards children, while some cultures may associate higher weights in children with being healthy.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Equality & Inclusion
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 39
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- It is also critical to address malnutrition in all its forms as one issue to avoid policy fragmentation. In a recent study among 139 low- and middle-income countries for example, only 39.6 per cent had nutrition policies that addressed all forms of malnutrition, despite facing the effects of a "nutrition transition".
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 28
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- There are also concerns that pesticides and additives in food may contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals. While this requires further research, it is suspected that such chemicals are associated with abnormal growth patterns and neurodevelopmental delays in children and may also increase susceptibility to non communicable diseases.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 68
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- The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, endorsed by the Human Rights Council in 2011, formally recognize the responsibility of enterprises to avoid infringing on the human rights of others and to address adverse human rights impacts with which they are involved. Logically, this responsibility includes the adverse impacts of the food industry with respect to the right to adequate food.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 71
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- The Guiding Principles underline that the responsibility of companies to respect human rights exists independently of the abilities and/or willingness of States to fulfil human rights obligations, and hence to prevent them from taking advantage of weak legislative environments. However, ensuring accountability and access to effective remedies for victims remains a major challenge.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 92
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- To promote meaningful change, actions must also be directed at the food system level to make it more "nutrition sensitive". It is imperative that global food systems move away from agro-industrial production methods that are responsible for dietary monotony and reliance on ultraprocessed food and beverages towards a system that supports food sovereignty, small-scale producers and local markets, based on ecological balance, agro-biodiversity and traditional practices. Food sovereignty allows peoples to define their own policies and strategies for sustainable production, distribution and consumption of food. Globally, the majority of food is supplied by local farmers. Therefore, efforts to combat malnutrition should support smallholder farmers and promote nutrition-sensitive production. Agroecology ensures food and nutrition security without compromising the economic, social and environmental needs of future generations. It focuses on maintaining productive agriculture that sustains yields and optimizes the use of local resources while minimizing the negative environmental and socioeconomic impacts of modern technologies. It is imperative to support ambitious research initiatives to establish the scientific basis for claiming that agroecology is capable of nutrition-sensitive production while promoting local livelihoods and the environment.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 95
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- Such a system must include safeguards against potential negative influences of market forces and powerful economic actors in the food and nutrition industries with respect to the human right to adequate food and nutrition, and promoting a system to manage conflicts of interest that arise from private sector involvement in nutrition initiatives.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 99l
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- [With a view to respecting, protecting and fulfilling the right to adequate food and nutrition, the Special Rapporteur recommends that:] All States incorporate the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes in its entirety into their legal systems and ensure adequate monitoring to ensure implementation;
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 7
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- Improving this situation for women would lead to important advantages for society as a whole. It is estimated that closing the gender gap in agricultural yields would increase agricultural output in developing countries by between 2.5 and 4 percent. This in turn, could reduce the number of undernourished people in the world in the order of 12-17 percent, or as much as 150 million people.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 97
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- Recognizing that industry self-regulation is ineffective, Governments should impose strong regulatory systems to ensure that the food industry does not violate citizens' human rights to adequate food and nutrition. It is recognized, however, that such efforts may face formidable resistance from a food industry seeking to protect its economic interests.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 64
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- Climate change itself intensifies psychological stress associated with disasters, increasing women's risks of situations of violence, sexual harassment and trafficking. Some women are forced into prostitution and research has shown increased HIV prevalence in drought-ridden areas of rural Africa.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Environment
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Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 99h
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- [With a view to respecting, protecting and fulfilling the right to adequate food and nutrition, the Special Rapporteur recommends that:] States ensure the political and financial commitments needed to shift from current industrial agricultural systems to nutrition-sensitive agroecology that is healthy for people and sustainable for the planet;
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 99m
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- [With a view to respecting, protecting and fulfilling the right to adequate food and nutrition, the Special Rapporteur recommends that:] The Human Rights Council endorse the WHO guidance on ending the inappropriate promotion of foods for infants and young children, presented at the World Health Assembly in May 2016.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Equality & Inclusion
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 50
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- Similarly, fisherwomen contribute significantly to the work carried out at the different stages within the fishing industry the role they play is largely undervalued. Despite their direct contribution to fishing economy, women fishers are categorically excluded from state-sponsored benefits, facilities and services.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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- Economic Rights
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- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 49
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- Many food producers and agricultural labourers are unable to feed their families as commercial farmers "relentlessly" try to save on labour costs through the casualization of the labour force. State support intended to ameliorate this problem is also lacking.
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- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 91
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- Several helpful initiatives exist to assist policymakers in ensuring nutrition accountability. For example, the WHO global database on the implementation of nutrition action set forth national policy actions and strategies to eliminate all forms of malnutrition. Similarly, the International Network for Food and Obesity/ Non Communicable Diseases Research, Monitoring and Action Support (INFORMAS), an international collaboration of universities and global non governmental organizations, seeks to monitor, benchmark and support actions to create healthy food environments and reduce diet-related non-communicable diseases. It uses the healthy food environment policy index to monitor government actions. While currently at the pilot-testing stage, such tools will assist civil society in holding Governments and the food industry to greater account for creating healthier food environments. The Nourishing Framework, created by World Cancer Research Fund International, is an interactive tool to promote healthy diets, allowing a selection and tailoring of policy options for different populations. Finally, WHO regional offices have developed regional nutrient profiling models, which can be used in policymaking to improve the overall nutritional quality of diets.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 67
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- Placing nutrition governance within the human rights framework also underlines the responsibility of corporations in the food and nutrition industry to respect human rights and to contribute to equitable access to nutritious foods. Such responsibility is implied in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which underlines that "everyone has duties to the community" (art. 29) and that groups and persons must refrain from activities causing encroachment on the rights enshrined in the Declaration (art. 30).
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 36
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- Such initiatives are particularly concerning because the private sector can advocate food supplements so effectively. For example, commercialization of such products as ready-to-use-therapeutic foods, branded with the logos of transnational companies, may also increase consumers' brand loyalty to a company's unhealthy soft drinks and snack foods. Furthermore, many businesses involved in fortified products are the same multinationals violating the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 72
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- While international human rights law lays the foundations for responsible corporate behaviour, food corporations have vehemently opposed calls to regulate marketing. Instead, many have promoted voluntary commitments on labelling and advertising or have sponsored nutrition and health education programmes as part of their "corporate social responsibility". The latter is particularly concerning, blurring the lines between education and marketing, and potentially allowing companies to disseminate misleading information.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 37
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- Nevertheless, fortification initiatives do make an important contribution to efforts to achieve food and nutrition security, provided they form part of a comprehensive strategy that addresses the social, economic and cultural determinants of food systems. Such solutions must always be critically evaluated and narrowly implemented to ensure that they are used only to provide temporary relief and do not replace long-term solutions, such as diversification of agriculture, or interfere with local production systems.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 99c
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- [With a view to respecting, protecting and fulfilling the right to adequate food and nutrition, the Special Rapporteur recommends that:] International regulations be implemented to curb the unchecked actions of powerful economic actors that have lately been flooding global markets with junk food. In this regard, negotiations within the Human Rights Council to establish a legally binding instrument to regulate the activities of transnational corporations are greatly welcomed;
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 3
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- Notwithstanding the legal framework designed to protect them, women experience poverty and hunger at disproportionate levels. Institutionalized gender discrimination and violence still impose barriers that prevent women from enjoying their economic, social and cultural rights and specifically the right to adequate food and nutrition, and the status of women and girls has not substantially improved, despite recurrent calls for the inclusion of a gender perspective to development programs and to social policies.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 32
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- Unfortunately, the IPR regime disproportionately excludes women, particularly in the context of agriculture. For example, IPR tends to reward "high technology" but ignores the contributions that the female labour force makes to agricultural production. Meanwhile, the privatization of agricultural resources leads to increased monetization. Women are less likely than men to have discretionary income, and are therefore less able to afford expensive seeds that were once managed communally.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 43
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- Leaders at the Conference also recognized the importance of integrating their political commitments with the post-2015 development agenda and of anchoring nutrition targets in the Sustainable Development Goals. The Goals have a universal character and cannot be achieved without special attention to nutrition. While Goal 2 explicitly refers to "nutrition" and Goal 3 to non-communicable diseases, nutrition is arguably interwoven within all 17 Goals, as well as 50 indicators.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 77
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- Some countries, such as Australia, the Republic of Korea and the United States, require restaurant chains to include information on energy and nutrient content or warning labels on sodium content. Clear standards are also needed on the use of nutrition and health claims to prevent consumers from being misled. In the United States, public demand for increased transparency has led to several attempts to implement mandatory-labelling schemes for genetically engineered foods.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 38
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- The fact that 73% of the world's seed supply is owned and patented by these corporations and are therefore non-renewable, presents women with a major dilemma being. They are accustomed to seed saving and sharing, and would have o chose between discontinuing the traditional practice of saving and exchanging seeds or risk punishment for an intellectual property crime.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 99i
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- [With a view to respecting, protecting and fulfilling the right to adequate food and nutrition, the Special Rapporteur recommends that:] States adopt an initiative similar to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control to regulate the food and beverage industry and protect individuals from the negative health and nutrition effects of highly processed foods;
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 17
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- Women additionally face numerous legal barriers in domestic law, which prevents them from fully realizing their right to food, including property rights, land rights and intellectual property rights. These legal barriers also prevent women from maintaining livelihoods that provide sustainable incomes necessary to purchase food, thus challenging women's right to food and ability to achieve food security.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 40
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- Woman food producers have been particularly disadvantaged by these policies and there is limited recourse, since the WTO Agreement on Agriculture requires member States to "refrain from introducing new forms of domestic support for agricultural production," most of which are designed to help support small scale and subsistence women farmers.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 90d
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- [The Special Rapporteur provides the following recommendations: In order for States to address discrimination against women in terms of equal labour opportunities, States should:] Ensure a sound policy and enabling environment to address the gender gap in agriculture, including the provision of training for women and ensure that their specific needs are taken into account.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 90e
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- [The Special Rapporteur provides the following recommendations: In order for States to address discrimination against women in terms of equal labour opportunities, States should:] Ensure that women fishers, and livestock owners have equal access to State sponsored benefits, facilities and services.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 61
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- However, the system still needs to incorporate a human rights approach, including participatory monitoring systems to evaluate standards as well as mechanisms to seek remedy for violations of human rights, particularly for women. A human rights approach emphasizes local self-determination that frustrated by externally imposed ownership and promotes control over critical and traditional local resources like water, land, and biodiversity.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 72
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- Despite women's role in collecting biofuels for household use, women are often excluded from energy plans and policies because energy is associated with electricity and fossil fuels and is therefore considered to be within men's domain.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 35
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- Globally, women have bred more than 7,000 species of crops. In India alone, seed saving has enabled women to breed 200,000 varieties of rice. Biodiversity offers the genetic variation necessary to protect against diseases, pests, and weather events that threaten to wipe out food supplies.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 63
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- Access to nutritious food is often a key indicator of socioeconomic inequalities. Discussing nutrition within a rights-based framework is critical to ensuring that marginalized and vulnerable populations disproportionately affected by malnutrition are guaranteed a certain level of nutrition and health, rather than a minimum number of calories needed for survival. Such recognition is crucial for the reduction of nutritional and health inequalities around the world.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 24
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- Diets based on highly processed "denatured" foods contribute to non communicable diseases, which are shortening the human lifespan. According to WHO, such diseases are collectively responsible for almost 70 per cent of all deaths worldwide, and this is expected to rise to 75 per cent by 2020. The consumption of unhealthy foods has been determined to be an important factor that increases the risk of non-communicable diseases, reinforcing the damage done by tobacco use, alcohol consumption and physical inactivity.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 85
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- Various countries have also taxed beverages that contain high levels of sugar or other sweeteners. While in some countries the revenue goes directly to the general budget or to the health sector, others use such funds for specific nutrition- and health-related projects. For example, Mexico uses revenue to finance programmes addressing malnutrition and obesity-related diseases, and the Navajo Nation earmarks tax revenues for such projects as farming, healthy convenience stores and health classes.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 29
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- Trade liberalization and foreign direct investment (FDI) by transnational corporations in the processed food industry have played a large role in increasing the availability of ultraprocessed foods on the global market. The removal of policies to protect domestic markets has strongly affected the increase in production of certain unhealthy foods, as well as their availability and cost. Countries that embrace market deregulation experience a faster increase in unhealthy food consumption.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 54
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- Even when women successfully earn income to support their families, men often respond by withdrawing their contribution to the household budget in order to purchase luxuries. A recent study in Nicaragua showed that if mothers contributed considerably to household income the likelihood of moderate and severe food insecurity decreased by 34 percent, and, if mothers were the main decision-makers over household income this decrease amounted to 60 percent.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 52
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- Disadvantages for women in both agricultural and non-agricultural sectors undermine their right to food. Women's income possibilities are more constrained than men's; the women's participation in the labour force is lower than men on a global scale - 70 percent of working age men are in the labour force compared to only 40 percent of working age women and the labour force participation rates have stagnated around the world in the past two decades.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 5
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- The Special Rapporteur wishes to acknowledge the important contributions made to this topic by the former Special Rapporteur on the right to food and the former Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health in their respective reports on the right to an adequate diet (A/HRC/19/59) and on unhealthy foods, non communicable diseases and the right to health (A/HRC/26/31).
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 99e
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- [With a view to respecting, protecting and fulfilling the right to adequate food and nutrition, the Special Rapporteur recommends that:] Internationally agreed guidelines on how to manage public-private partnership and monitor accountability be established, based on independent assessments of the impact of commercial sector engagement in nutrition;
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 27
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- Between 1990 and 2010, many Latin American and sub-Saharan African countries engaged in land reform to establish formal laws that recognize and protect women's rights to land. According to the 2015 UNWOMEN's Progress of the World's Women Report, "by 2014, 128 countries had laws that guarantee married women's equality when it comes to property, and in 112 countries daughters had equal inheritance rights to sons".
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 98
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- A holistic approach to nutrition requires national policymakers to create an environment conducive to nutritious, healthy diets, including through education, and dietary guidelines. Finally, a comprehensive approach should encourage adjustments in food supply and changes in food systems to increase the availability and accessibility of healthier food that is both sustainable and nutrition sensitive.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 99j
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- [With a view to respecting, protecting and fulfilling the right to adequate food and nutrition, the Special Rapporteur recommends that:] Recognizing the particular vulnerability of women to malnutrition, the international human rights framework protect women's right to adequate food and nutrition, beyond pregnancy and breastfeeding;
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 23
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- Women's property ownership is a significant indicator of poverty, and a key factor in securing increased participation in household decision making. Granting women the autonomy to make everyday choices has been proven to improve reproductive health, family nutrition, and child welfare. Land ownership also helps strengthen women's roles in community affairs and women's bargaining power.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 57
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- It is widely acknowledged that climate change impacts are not gender-neutral. As already marginalized individuals in virtually every society, women face discrimination and are subject to human rights abuses at a disproportionate rate, further accelerated by climate change.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 90h
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- [The Special Rapporteur provides the following recommendations: In order for States to address discrimination against women in terms of equal labour opportunities, States should:] Promote accelerated efforts in terms of financial aid, in order to ensure that gender equality is mainstreamed throughout all climate change programs in all sectors.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 90b
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- [The Special Rapporteur provides the following recommendations: In order for States to address discrimination against women in terms of equal labour opportunities, States should:] Ensure investment in basic social protection, services and infrastructure, including health care and the provision of childcare services, which can allow women to participate in paid work.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 90f
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- [The Special Rapporteur provides the following recommendations: In order for States to address discrimination against women in terms of equal labour opportunities, States should:] Ensure gender mainstreaming in all adaptation and mitigation responses to climate change and encourage policy-makers to work with both women and men taking their views into consideration at all levels.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 60
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- A relatively new proposal, the draft Framework Convention on Global Health, suggests that the right to adequate food should be interpreted to mean the right to a standard of nutritional quality and not just the right to a caloric minimum.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 84
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- Researchers and breeders often work in isolation from women and men farmers and are sometimes unaware of their needs and priorities beyond yield and resistance to pests and diseases. Moreover, extension agents and research organizations tend to consider many local varieties and breeds to be low-performing and inferior. As a result, national policies that provide incentives such as loans and direct payments for the use of modern varieties and breeds contribute to the loss of genetic diversity and affect traditional gender roles.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 4
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- Women account for 70% of the world's hungry and are disproportionately affected by malnutrition and food insecurity. This ratio is overwhelming in some developing and Least Developed Countries, for example, more than one third of women in several South-Asian countries being underweight. Poor nutrition, lack of healthcare, social protection, limited economic opportunities and general neglect has excluded more women from global society than the number of men killed in 20th century wars, combined.
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 41
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- Agricultural trade liberalization is generally premised on export-promotion policies that benefit men and larger-scale farmers. Liberalization has also opened smaller markets to subsidized imports, thus displacing the farmed products of local women, and encouraging the production of export crops over subsistence agriculture. Women are struggling to maintain household incomes due to increased competition with imported agricultural goods, reduced prices, and declining commodity prices in international markets.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 99g
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- [With a view to respecting, protecting and fulfilling the right to adequate food and nutrition, the Special Rapporteur recommends that:] States be encouraged to use existing tools established by the United Nations, as well as by non-governmental organizations and academic networks, to create a "national master plan for nutrition" with a time frame and budgetary targets specifically tailored to meet domestic needs;
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Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 42
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- The trade liberalization policies heavily favor large corporate agribusinesses and a large-scale model of agricultural production, at the expense of the most vulnerable and marginalized small-scale agricultural producers. Women tend to engage in agricultural production on a scale that is not compatible with a large, corporate model of farming, holding smaller plots than men, which are, on average, 20 - 30 percent less productive than plots managed by men.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 75
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- The Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security also encourage States to take steps to prevent overconsumption and unbalanced diets that may lead to malnutrition, obesity and degenerative diseases. Many States are taking steps in the right direction to regulate the food industry, including through labelling initiatives, advertising restrictions and economic measures.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 13
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- WHO has concluded that malnutrition is the underlying contributing factor in about 45 per cent of all child deaths. While the world has made progress in addressing undernutrition, for example by reducing stunting by more than a third since 1990, this progress is not fast enough. In 2014, there were 159 million stunted and 50 million wasted children in the world, and by 2030, stunting is expected to affect 129 million children.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 21
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- In the Rome Declaration on Nutrition, it was acknowledged that current food systems were being increasingly challenged to provide adequate, safe, diversified and nutrient-rich food for all that contributed to healthy diets due to, inter alia, constraints posed by resource scarcity and environmental degradation, as well as by unsustainable production and consumption patterns, food losses and waste, and unbalanced distribution.
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Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 46
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- While ambitious targets have been set to ensure global governance of nutrition, much more is needed to live up to the challenge of sustainability while providing each person with enough food to live a healthy and productive life, as targeted by the Sustainable Development Goals. Several shortcomings within the existing system should be addressed.
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- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 83
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- Much remains to be done to end the inappropriate marketing of breast milk substitutes, and countries are encouraged to adopt, amend and strengthen legal measures in line with the International Code and relevant World Health Assembly resolutions. In particular, it is necessary to ensure that national legislation adequately covers substitute products aimed at children older than 12 months.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Older persons
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 41
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- In 2011 the WHO Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Non Communicable Diseases initiated action to tackle malnutrition comprehensively, including unbalanced nutrition and obesity. In 2012, the World Health Assembly endorsed six global nutrition targets to improve maternal, infant and young child nutrition by 2025. Commitment to reach those targets was reaffirmed at the Second International Conference on Nutrition, held in Rome in 2014.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Infants
- Youth
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 38
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- To respond to universal malnutrition challenges, a coordinated multisectoral policy response is needed at every level. This requires dialogue between all relevant sectors and actors, including nutritionists, development actors, civil society, donors, the private sector and government officials. Furthermore, it is important to establish accountability mechanisms to assess planning, budgeting and the results of nutrition-related interventions.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- All
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 40
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- At the height of the food price crises in 2008, it was suggested that global governance of nutrition was dysfunctional. Since then, significant initiatives have been undertaken at the global level. Examples include the Scaling Up Nutrition movement and two major campaigns of the Secretary-General: "Every woman, every child" and the Zero Hunger Challenge.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 87
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- Taxation, import restrictions, subsidies and labelling initiatives may, however, be scrutinized for violation of trade agreements. They may also give rise to debates as to whether such governance tools intrude unreasonably on personal and individual freedoms and differing cultural understandings of "nutrition".
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Economic Rights
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- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 83
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- Women lack access to information about climate change, and this knowledge is critical to support adaptation, promote well-being and increase resilience to climate change. Women are more likely than men to adopt climate-adaptive and resilient practices, but most women do not have access to formal sources of information, such as extension agents.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Personas afectadas
- Men
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 90c
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- [The Special Rapporteur provides the following recommendations: In order for States to address discrimination against women in terms of equal labour opportunities, States should:] Develop comprehensive measures to tackle discrimination and violence in the workplace and ensure implementation of these measures at the domestic level.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Economic Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Gender
- Personas afectadas
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 67
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- The impact of environmental degradation and biodiversity loss on common property resources threatens household food security and livelihoods. Women who lack land tenure depend on common resources, for subsistence. This decreases the time available for food production and preparation, and threatens women's safety, with consequences for household food security and nutritional well-being.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Food & Nutrition
- Gender
- Personas afectadas
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 44
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- Most of the world's poor who live and work in rural areas are employed in the agriculture sector. Globally, 20 - 30% of the 450 million waged agricultural workers are women, as are 30 % of those employed in the fishing sector and this number is increasing. Yet, women face difficulty in engaging in market behavior when cultural norms make it socially unacceptable for women to interact with men.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Economic Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Poverty
- Personas afectadas
- Men
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 46
- Paragraph text
- Moreover, agricultural labour is one of the most dangerous sectors in which to work, particularly for women. It is physically demanding and safety standards are often low or non-existent, and protective equipment and clothing are often designed with men in mind. Women are also most often engaged on a piecework basis, which motivates them to put their health at risk to complete as much work as possible. In Guatemala, allegations of serious breaches of this kind were received by the UN Country Office in 2014, referring to the widespread practice of tying wages to productivity goals, which in turn affected women proportionally more, as they were often forced to work in an unrecognized manner, helping the men reach those goals. Women agricultural workers also face rights violations related to their reproductive roles. Exposure to certain chemicals used in agriculture can cause spontaneous abortions, premature births and affect child and infant development through exposure to toxic chemicals in utero and also by way of breastmilk. As a result of discriminatory hiring practices, women often hide their pregnancies and employers often hire women on short-term contracts in order to avoid paying maternity benefits.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Gender
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Men
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 16
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- The second disconnect concerns the structural separation of nutrition from the human right to adequate food, which has focused on increasing food production and not on broad and equal food access. UN treaty law, whether ICESCR, CEDAW or the Rights of Child (CRC), does not develop nutrition as constitutive of a right to food for all women, but rather for women who are pregnant or breastfeeding, thus focusing on women in their reproductive role as mothers.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Governance & Rule of Law
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 32
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- The level and effect of investment by the food industry in the marketing of unhealthy food products is startling. Persistent advertising campaigns, discount offers, exclusive contracts with food outlets and pricing and packaging strategies are all used to drive demand.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Personas afectadas
- All
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 86
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- Gender analysis is important for understanding the causes of hunger and malnutrition, due to women's special role in the food systems. The central role of women in food production, household food management and the important consequences of gender relations for food security have been widely documented. Yet, women cannot easily access productive assets including land, water, seed, machinery and livestock, credit and other financial services. Women also face discrimination to access to food as an individual consumer.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Gender
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 19
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- Legal barriers also prevent men and women from equally benefiting from paid employment through the sanctioning of systems of overt discrimination against women in the workplace. As of 2014, 77 countries, out of 140 countries with reported data, still had legal restrictions on the type of paid employment activities available to women. Even when equal employment opportunities are available, equal pay is not: only 59 countries form the same sample of countries legally require equal pay for work of equal value.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Equality & Inclusion
- Personas afectadas
- Men
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Right to food and nutrition 2016, para. 27
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- Worldwide data suggest that average sodium and sugar consumption is well above minimal physiological needs. Processed food consumers unknowingly consume three to five times more sodium than required, which is particularly troubling when such foods target children. For example, a global study conducted in 2015 reviewed 387 popular children's meals and found sodium levels to be dangerously high. Similarly, over the past 50 years, global sugar consumption has more than tripled, particularly in the form of sweetened beverages.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Health
- Personas afectadas
- Children
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 39
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- Non-corporate agricultural producers, and particularly women, have suffered from evolution in agricultural policy and economic trends over the past several decades. The devastating structural adjustment policies imposed throughout much of the developing world in the past decades, largely as a precondition of receiving development assistance or joining the global trade regime, have resulted in an overall loss in agricultural productivity, decreased yields, and increasingly precarious rural livelihoods.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Food & Nutrition
- Personas afectadas
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 29
- Paragraph text
- Formal laws could also prove ineffective if women do not realize or assume control over their rights. For example, in 2005, India amended the Hindu Succession Act (1956) to allow men and women equal inheritance to agricultural land. However, according to a 2013 study, challenges in the implementation of the Act had been observed, allegedly as a result of women not being aware of their legal rights and not wanting to upset their families and resistance from their brothers amongst other reasons.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Economic Rights
- Equality & Inclusion
- Gender
- Personas afectadas
- Families
- Men
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo
Integrating a gender perspective in the right to food 2016, para. 90g
- Paragraph text
- [The Special Rapporteur provides the following recommendations: In order for States to address discrimination against women in terms of equal labour opportunities, States should:] Provide increased access to information for women in relation to climate change, since the generally have less access to information in order for them to support adaptation, promote well-being and increase resilience to climate change.
- Organismo
- Special Rapporteur on the right to food
- Tipo de documento
- Special Procedures' report
- Temas
- Environment
- Equality & Inclusion
- Food & Nutrition
- Gender
- Personas afectadas
- Women
- Año
- 2016
Párrafo